Better Grammar In 30 Minutes a Day

By
Constance Immel and Florence Sacks

Copyright © 1994 by Harper Collins College Publishers Trade edition published 1995 by The Career Press, Inc.

All rights reserved under the Pan-American and International Copyright Conventions. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system now known or hereafter invented, without written permission from the publisher, The Career Press.

BETTER GRAMMAR IN 30 MINUTES A DAY
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Immel, Constance.

Better grammar in 30 minutes a day / by Constance Immel and Florence Sacks.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 1-56414-204-3 (paper)

1. English language—Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc.
2. English language—Grammar—Self-instruction. I. Sacks, Florence. II. Title.

PE1112.3.I46    1995

428.2—dc20

95-21103

CIP

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1 Nouns and Pronouns

1.1 Identifying Nouns

Common and Proper Nouns

1.2 Singular and Plural Nouns

1.3 Possessives

Making Nouns Possessive

Plurals and Possessives

1.4 Personal Pronouns

Person, Number, Gender

Avoiding Shifts in Person

Possessive Pronouns—Short Forms (Use with Nouns)

Possessive Pronouns—Long Forms (Use without Nouns)

The Pronoun Who

Contractions

1.5 Reflexive Pronouns

Chapter 2 Verbs

2.1 Present and Past Tenses: Regular Verbs

Action Verbs

Linking Verbs

2.2 Present and Past Tenses: Irregular Verbs

2.3 Principal Forms of Verbs

2.4 Auxiliary Verbs

Adverbs

Contractions

2.5 Future Tense

Will and Would

2.6 Perfect Tenses

2.7 Tense Shift Problems

Chapter 3 The Sentence

3.1 Subjects and Verbs

Commands and Requests

3.2 Prepositional Phrases

3.3 Direct Objects of Action Verbs

3.4 Linking Verbs

3.5 Pronouns Used as Subjects and Objects

Subject Pronouns

Object Pronouns

3.6 Compound Subjects, Verbs, and Objects

Pronouns in Compound Subjects and Objects

3.7 Contractions

Omitting Letters in a Verb

Omitting the i in Here is and There is

3.8 Sentence Patterns

Chapter 4 Expanding the Sentence

4.1 Adding Details with Adjectives

Adjectives

Kinds of Adjectives

Position of Adjectives

Special Forms of Adjectives

Punctuating Adjectives Before a Noun

Comparison of Adjectives

4.2 Adding Details with Adverbs

Tests for Adverbs

Function of Adverbs

Position of Adverbs

Comparison of Adverbs

4.3 Adding Details with Verbal Phrases

Punctuation

4.4 Misplaced Modifiers and Dangling Modifiers

Misplaced Modifiers

Dangling Modifiers

Chapter 5 Main Clauses

5.1 Identifying Main Clauses

5.2 Connecting Main Clauses

The Simple Sentence

The Compound Sentence

Joining Main Clauses

Punctuation

5.3 Parallel Structure

Faulty Parallelism

Punctuation

5.4 Correcting Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Chapter 6 Subordinate Clauses

6.1 Identifying Subordinate Clauses

Sentences with More than One Subordinate Clause

6.2 Using Subordinate Clauses

Adverb Clauses

Adjective Clauses

Using Subordination to Correct Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Punctuation

6.3 Sentence Fragments

Four Types of Sentence Fragments

Chapter 7 Agreement

7.1 Subjects and Verbs

7.2 Subjects and Verbs—Four Difficult Patterns

Words that Come Between the Subject and the Verb

Reversed Word Order

Compound Subjects Joined by and

Compound Subjects Joined by or, Neither... nor, or Either... or

7.3 Subjects and Verbs-Special Problems

Subjects that Are Singular

Subjects that Can Be Singular or Plural

Collective Nouns

Nouns Ending in -s that Are Not Plural

Time, Money, and Weight

Titles

Names of Organizations and Businesses

Special Problems of Agreement

7.4 Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent

Words that Separate Antecedent and Pronoun

Compound Antecedents

Collective Nouns

Singular Words

Agreement of Who, Whom, Which, and That with Antecedents

7.5 Unclear Pronoun Reference

More than One Possible Antecedent

No Specific Antecedent

Chapter 8 Commas

8.1 Coordinating Connectives Between Main Clauses; Items in a Series; Introductory Phrases and Clauses

1. Use a Comma Between Two Main Clauses Connected by a Coordinating Connective

2. Use Commas to Separate Items in a Series

3. Use a Comma After Introductory Words and Phrases

4. Use a Comma After Introductory Subordinate Clauses

8.2 Adjectives Before a Noun; Words that Interrupt; Direct Address

5. Use Commas to Separate Adjectives Before a Noun

6. Use Commas to Enclose Words that Interrupt

7. Use Commas to Set Off Words in Direct Address

8.3 Nonessential Words, Phrases, and Clauses; Direct Quotations; Dates, Geographical Names, and Addresses

8. Use Commas to Set Off Nonessential Words, Phrases, and Clauses

9. Use Commas to Set Off Direct Quotations

10. Use Commas in Dates, Geographical Names, and Addresses

Chapter 9 Punctuation and Capitalization

9.1 Period, Question Mark, and Exclamation Point

Period (.)

Question Mark (?)

Exclamation Point (!)

9.2 Semicolon and Colon

Semicolon (;)

Colon (:)

9.3 Quotation Marks

Direct Quotations

Split Quotations

End Punctuation in Quotations

Quotations within Quotations

The Use of Quotation Marks and Underlining in Titles

9.4 Hyphen and Dash

Hyphen (-)

Dash ( — )

9.5 Capital Letters

Always Capitalize

Chapter 10 Usage

10.1 A/An/And

10.2 Accept/Except

10.3 Advice/Advise

10.4 Affect/Effect

10.5 Already/All Ready

10.6 Dessert/Desert

10.7 Its/It’s

10.8 Know/No

10.9 Lead/Led

10.10 Loose/Lose

10.11 Past/Passed

10.12 Personal/Personnel

10.13 Principal/Principle

10.14 Quiet/Quite

10.15 Suppose/Supposed

10.16 Then/Than

10.17 There/Their/They’re

10.18 Through/Though/Thought

10.19 To/Two/Too

10.20 Use/Used

10.21 Weather/Whether

10.22 Whose/Who’s

10.23 Your/You’re

Answer Key

Glossary

Index

Preface

Better Grammar In 30 Minutes a Day is a workbook for people who have something to say but have difficulty saying it in standard English. We believe that the clearly worded definitions and examples, together with a variety of exercises, can help those in writing courses, in English-as-a-second-language classes, and in writing laboratories and tutor-assisted classes. We also believe that anyone can use this book on their own to brush up on rusty grammar skills.

To help people write clear, error-free sentences, the book features:

• Thorough coverage of key areas of grammar.

• Clear explanations with a minimum of grammatical terms.

• An abundant variety of exercises.

• An answer key at the end of the book to encourage readers to work at their own pace and check their answers as they go.

We think that people learn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process. Therefore, we keep the explanatory material short, but we provide extensive examples and exercises that demonstrate the principle. Thus, readers are never faced with long, complicated explanations that are difficult to understand.

Many of the exercises are in paragraph form or contain sentences all on one topic. The topics are on subjects that should be of interest to anyone.

It is our hope that by using Better Grammar In 30 Minutes a Day, people will become competent writers by building their skills and confidence.

Constance Immel
Florence Sacks

Chapter 1

Nouns and Pronouns

1.1 Identifying Nouns

If you were asked to give some examples of nouns, you probably would respond with words like astronaut, Mars, or spaceship. You would be right, because a noun does name a person, a place, or a thing, but a noun can also refer to an idea such as truth or an activity such as orbiting. A noun, then, names a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an activity.

If you are not sure whether a word is a noun, put the word the in front of it. If the word is a noun, in most cases, the phrase will make sense. In addition to the, some other common noun markers are a, an, these, those, that, and this. A noun marker is an adjective that points to the noun that follows it: a car, the Washington Monument, that routine.

Common and Proper Nouns

All of the examples in the previous paragraph except the Washington Monument are common nouns, which refer to people, places, things, ideas, or activities in general terms. Common nouns are usually not capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence.

However, when we refer to the name of a specific person, place, or thing, we use proper nouns, which always begin with capital letters. In general we do not capitalize the names of ideas or activities. Using “the” as a noun test will not always help you identify proper nouns, but remembering that they are capitalized will help you pick them out.

Common Nouns

Proper Nouns

bridge

Vincent Thomas Bridge

woman

Yvonne Burke

street

Freshman Drive

college

Metropolitan Community College

Exercise 1.1

Using the noun test, identify the underlined words.

A. If the word is a noun, write N above the word.

B. If it is not a noun, write X above the word.

1. The traffic on the highway stopped.

2. Rain fell last night.

3. Some drivers were cautious.

4. The surface of the road was slick.

5. John’s Buick had good brakes.

Do not be confused by other words in addition to the noun marker that may be in front of the noun. These words that describe or limit the noun are also called adjectives. For example:

Adjectives answer questions such as which or how many in reference to a noun.

Exercise 1.2

Using the noun test, identify all the nouns in these sentences. Write N above each noun.

Notice that the word cheese is not a noun in this sentence as it is in the sentence: Joe likes cheese. Angela is not eating plain cheese without any bread; she is eating a sandwich. Cheese tells us what kind of sandwich she is eating.

1. Mr. Cuadros gave us two free tickets to the basketball game.

2. Would you like a bowl of chicken soup and a fresh fruit salad?

3. I bought a digital watch for thirty dollars at Kmart.

4. Lori wore a new green wool dress to her job interview.

5. The young doctor had a pleasant smile and a reassuring manner.

1.2 Singular and Plural Nouns

Use a singular noun when you are referring to only one person, place, thing, idea, or activity, and a plural noun when you are referring to more than one.

Noun Markers for the Singular

These words indicate that a singular word usually follows:

one

each

a

every

an

a single

Note: The noun marker a is followed by a word beginning with a consonant, and the noun marker an is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or a silent h.

Examples: a shoe    a home    an orange    an honor

Plural nouns present a special problem: Writing the singular form instead of the plural can change the meaning of your sentence. Study these basic rules for spelling the plural forms of nouns.

1. Most nouns form the plural by adding the letter s.

bed, beds    pen, pens    pipe, pipes

Exercise 1.3

Write the plural forms of these nouns.

1. dog ________________

2. date ________________

3. trick ________________

4. test ________________

5. sale ________________

6. word ________________

7. sentence ________________

8. paragraph ________________

9. operator ________________

10. student ________________

2. Words that end in y, preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) usually add s to form the plural. Words that end in y, preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the y to i and adding es.

city, cities    duty, duties    But note: bay, bays

Exercise 1.4

Write the plural forms of these nouns.

1. sky ________________

2. day ________________

3. lady ________________

4. penalty ________________

5. key ________________

6. turkey ________________

7. county ________________

8. candy ________________

9. army ________________

10. battery ________________

3. Words that end in sh, s, ch, x, and z form the plural by adding es.

wish, wishes    church, churches,    buzz, buzzes

Exercise 1.5

Write the plural forms of these nouns.

1. brush ________________

2. watch ________________

3. bus ________________

4. waltz ________________

5. tax ________________

6. glass ________________

7. box ________________

8. mess ________________

9. rash ________________

10. stitch ________________

4. Nouns that end in f, ff, or fe usually add s. Certain nouns change the ending to ve and then add s. Consult your dictionary to be sure.

knife, knives

loaf, loaves

calf, calves

thief, thieves

roof, roofs

belief, beliefs

proof, proofs

cliff, cliffs

staff, staffs

Exercise 1.6

Write the plural forms of these nouns.

1. self ________________

2. half ________________

3. hoof ________________

4. shelf ________________

5. proof ________________

6. life ________________

7. thief ________________

8. wolf ________________

9. cliff ________________

10. wife ________________

5. Most nouns ending in o form the plural by adding s. Here are six commonly used words, however, that are exceptions: echo, hero, potato, tomato, torpedo, and veto. To these words, add es.

echo, echoes    hero, heroes    potato, potatoes

Exercise 1.7

Write the plural forms of these nouns.

1. soprano ________________

2. veto ________________

3. tomato ________________

4. potato ________________

5. piano ________________

6. radio ________________

7. zero ________________

8. ratio ________________

9. hero ________________

10. domino ________________

6. Some nouns do not add s or es to form the plural. These nouns change their spelling.

woman, women

foot, feet

tooth, teeth

goose, geese

child, children

mouse, mice

Exercise 1.8

Fill in each blank with the plural form of the noun in parentheses.

1. The children loved to play with the three white ________________ (mouse).

2. We should have our ________________ (tooth) examined twice a year.

3. Many ________________ (woman) watch Monday-night football on television.

4. All of the ________________ (child) in his family have gone to college.

5. There are five ________________ (man) on the basketball court.

Noun Markers for the Plural

These words indicate that a plural word usually follows:

1.3 Possessives

Making Nouns Possessive

In addition to nouns changing their forms to indicate the plural, nouns can change their forms to show ownership or a belonging-to relationship. To signal this relationship, we change the form of the noun by adding an apostrophe and the letter s or in some cases just the apostrophe.

Rules for Writing Possessive Nouns

1. Add an apostrophe and an s to words that do not end in s.

the girl

the men

Linda

the girl’s scarf

the men’s coats

Linda’s pen

2. Add only an apostrophe to words that end in s.

the girls

the monkeys

Mr. Harris

the girls’ scarves

the monkeys’ tails

Mr. Harris’ house

3. Add an apostrophe and an s to the final word in a compound noun.

my father-in-law’s business

somebody else’s mistake

4. Add an apostrophe and an s to the second noun when two nouns are used to show common ownership.

John and Gina’s mother

Smith and Lopez’s market

5. Generally the possessive form is not used with nonliving things.

the table leg

the magazine cover

The following groups of words show a belonging-to relationship.

the trophy that belongs to the swimming team the papers that belong to the students

But if you were writing about the trophy or the papers, you probably would use the possessive form of the noun.

The swimming team’s trophy is on display.
The English teacher returned the students’ papers.

Exercise 1.9

Rewrite the underlined words in the possessive form.

Example: The claws of the cats are sharp.    the cats’ claws

1. The names of the cats are Ginny and Max. _________

2. They listen to the commands of their owners. _______

3. They like to sleep in the crib of the baby. ____________

4. The mother of the baby chases them out of the crib. ______________________________________________

5. Sometimes Max tries to eat the food that belongs to Ginny. ________________________________________

Special Forms of the Possessive

Relationships other than possession are also shown by using the apostrophe and the letter s. Here are some examples:

time:

today’s class

yesterday’s visit

measure:

money’s worth

two dollars’ worth

Exercise 1.10

Put the apostrophe in each underlined noun to make it a possessive form.

1. Rain caused a cancellation of Saturdays game.

2. Jenny will be paid for two weeks vacation.

3. We will have a party on New Years Eve.

4. The employees have completed a good days work.

5. Where can you buy a pennys worth of candy?

Plurals and Possessives

Not every word ending in s requires an apostrophe. Most words ending in s are not possessive; many of them are noun plurals. The following exercise will give you practice using the plural and possessive forms of nouns. If necessary, review the rules given in this chapter on forming noun plurals and possessives.

Exercise 1.11

Add apostrophes to the possessive forms of the nouns in the following sentences. Some of the nouns are plural but not possessive and do not require apostrophes.

1. The Larsons visited friends in St. Paul.

2. Their friends house is near a lake.

3. On May 2, the refugees boat landed.

4. The refugees had only a few supplies with them.

5. Those dictionaries belong to the students.

6. I returned the students books to them.

7. Many customers were dissatisfied with the product.

8. Did the company refund the customers money?

9. When my car was being repaired, I used my parents car.

10. Many parents of the athletes attended the banquet.

1.4 Personal Pronouns

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns and noun phrases. Subject and object pronouns act as the subject or object of a verb just as nouns do. The use of pronouns avoids the unnecessary repetition of nouns. Although pronouns perform the same functions in sentences as nouns do, you do not make the same changes in their forms. Do not add s for the plural and do not add an apostrophe in the possessive.

Person, Number, Gender

Personal pronouns show person, number, and gender. Person indicates the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. See Chapter 3 for more on the use of pronouns.

First person shows the person speaking.

I mailed the letter.

We walked to the store.

Second person shows the person spoken to.

Did you mail the letter?

You are both invited to the party.

Third person shows the person or thing spoken about.

She shopped all day.

He wrapped and mailed the package.

It should arrive soon.

They enjoyed the play.

Avoiding Shifts in Person

Try to avoid unnecessary shifts from one person to another. These can confuse the reader. When writing about a person, choose one pronoun and stay with that pronoun.

The most common shift is to the pronoun you.

Incorrect:

Most students can pass the tests my geology teacher gives if you study.

Correct:

Most students can pass the tests my geology teacher gives if they study.

The noun students refers to third person; therefore, write they (third person) instead of you (second person). The pronoun should be in the same person as the noun it stands for.

Incorrect:

When I shop for food, I check the price of each item that I put in the shopping cart. That way you know how much the bill will be when you get to the cashier.

Correct:

The second sentence should read: That way I know how much the bill will be when I get to the cashier.

In the incorrect example, the writer has shifted from I (first person) to you (second person).

Exercise 1.12

Some of the following sentences contain shifts in person. Identify each error by drawing a line under the pronoun; then write the correct form above the word. You may have to change the form of the verb.

1. I enjoy eating out instead of cooking at home. Living in Seattle, you have a choice of many different kinds of restaurants. My favorite restaurant is a Japanese one near my home. It is small and very popular, so you usually have to wait for a table.

2. If a person wants to learn to play a musical instrument well, you will have to develop self-discipline. The serious music student, for example, must be willing to give up watching two or three hours of television a day, and, instead, spend your time practicing.

3. During the past year or two, the price of food has risen sharply. Every time I go to the market, you can see increases in several items. Not so long ago, your twenty dollars bought quite a few bags of groceries, but now I can carry twenty dollars’ worth of food home in one bag.

4. I received a camera for a graduation present last year. It worked fine at first, but after a few months, you could tell that something was wrong with it. The pictures were so blurry that you couldn’t recognize the people in them. The repairperson at the camera shop wanted too much money to repair it, so I stopped using it. You would be wasting your money to buy film for that lemon.

5. My brother likes his job as a lifeguard at the beach. You don’t have to wear a coat and tie to work, and you are out in the fresh air all day. A lifeguard has an important job. You don’t just watch pretty girls; you are responsible for the lives of all those people who come to enjoy the ocean.

Number indicates whether pronouns are singular or plural. Singular means one person or thing. Plural means more than one person or thing. Pronouns do not add s or es to form the plural.

Singular forms are used to refer to one person, thing, or idea.

I live in an apartment.

Don, have you met Carole?

She sent it to her mother.

Plural forms are used to refer to more than one person, thing, or idea.

Don’t lose them again.

Three of you are tied for first place.

We have never met their son.

Third person pronouns have masculine, feminine, and neuter gender.

Third Person Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns—Short Forms (Use with Nouns)

Possessive pronouns are used to show possession or ownership.

Example: I washed my car.

In this sentence, I own the car; therefore, it is my car.

Person

Singular

Plural

First

my

our

Second

your

your

Third

his, her, its

their

In questions, use the pronoun whose.

Never add apostrophes to possessive pronouns.

Possessive Pronouns—Long Forms (Use without Nouns)

Person

Singular

Plural

First

mine

our

Second

yours

yours

Third

his, hers

theirs

The long form of the possessive pronoun replaces the noun. completely. We use the long form when the sentence follows another in which the noun is clearly stated.

Example: I washed my car. You didn’t wash yours.

In these sentences, the reader should have no trouble understanding that yours replaces your car since the noun car is stated in the previous sentence.

Exercise 1.13

Rewrite the following pairs of sentences. Repeat the first sentence, but change the second one so that the underlined noun is not repeated. Use the long form of the possessive pronoun in place of the noun.

Example: This my pen. Your pen is in your pocket.

You write: This is my pen. Yours is in your pocket.

1. We like your car. The Palkas like their car too.

2. Professor Wong teaches his classes in the morning. Professor Levy teaches her classes in the afternoon.

3. Jerry carries his calculator in his pocket. Anna and Marlon carry their calculators in their briefcases.

4. Aaron helps Rosa with her problems. No one helps Aaron with his problems.

5. Your notebook is here on the desk. My notebook is in the car.

The Pronoun Who

When used as the object of a verb or a preposition, the pronoun who has a special form—whom.

Examples: Whom do they recommend?

For whom did the city council vote?

Informal English accepts who rather than whom, except after a preposition. In conversation, most people would say, “Who do they recommend?”

Also, remember the possessive form whose is used before a noun. Do not confuse it with the contraction who’s, which replaces who is.

Contractions

In conversation and informal writing, the pronoun is often joined together with the verb that follows it. This is called a contraction. The two words are joined together with an apostrophe that takes the place of any missing letter.

Example: I am = I’m    you are = you’re    it is = it’s

Do not confuse the spelling of the possessive pronoun your with the contraction you’re, or its with the contraction it’s.

Exercise 1.14

Correct the spelling errors in the underlined pronoun forms.

1. Your moving to Oregon in a new van.

____________

2. Their parked in a no-parking zone.

____________

3. Whose going to the restaurant with us?

____________

4. Its too late to register for this class.

____________

5. Their playing my favorite song on the radio.

____________

6. Joanne gave Marsha her house key because Marsha lost her’s.

____________

7. The Indians are leading in their division, and the Braves are leading in theirs’.

____________

8. My dog has learned to give me it’s paw when I say, “Give me you’re paw.”

____________

9. Who’s dictionary may I borrow?

____________

10. Your going to pass this test on the first try.

____________

1.5 Reflexive Pronouns

Pronouns that end in -self and -selves are called reflexive pronouns.

Reflexive Pronouns

Do not write hisself, themself, or theirselves. These words are nonstandard English.

The reflexive pronoun is used in two ways:

a. I cut myself.

In sentence a, myself is used to refer back to I.

b. The president himself shook my father’s hand.

In sentence b, himself is used to emphasize the person named, the president.

Do not misuse reflexive pronouns by using them instead of personal pronouns in this way:

c. Gerry and myself went for a walk.

You would not write: Myself went for a walk. Use the subject form of the pronoun, I: Gerry and I went for a walk.

d. The Harts took Stan and myself sailing.

You say: The Harts took me sailing, not myself. Use the object form of the pronoun, me: The Harts took Stan and me sailing. You can avoid making this error by using a reflexive pronoun only when it refers to another word in the sentence. Sentences c and d have no words for myself to refer back to.

Exercise 1.15

If the use of the underlined reflexive pronoun is correct, write C on the line. If the use is not correct, write the correct pronoun.

1. He himself did all the work. ______________________

2. Laura and myself are science fiction fans. __________

3. We treated ourselves to large banana splits. ________

4. Give the plans to Mr. Zapata and myself. __________

5. They consider themselves experts. _______________

Here is a chart of the pronouns you have studied in this chapter. Use it to help you remember the different kinds of pronouns we use in sentences.

Chapter 2

Verbs

2.1 Present and Past Tenses: Regular Verbs

Every sentence must have a verb to describe the action of the subject. Since the subject and the verb are the two most important parts of a sentence, learning to recognize verbs is essential to your progress in becoming a better writer. Let’s review three characteristics of verbs that help to identify them.

1. The verb tells what the subject does, did, or will do (action), is, was, or will be (linking).

Example: Reggie caught the fly ball.

What did Reggie do?

He caught. Therefore, caught is the verb.

2. The verb changes its form to show time (tense).

Example: Reggie catches the fly ball. (The time is the present.)

Reggie caught the fly ball. (The time is the past.)

Reggie will catch the fly ball. (The time is the future.)

3. The verb changes its form in the third person singular, present tense to agree with the subject.

Example: I catch the fly ball. (first person)

She/He catches the fly ball, (third person)

There are two kinds of verbs: action verbs and linking verbs.

Action Verbs

Most verbs tell what the subject (someone or something) does, did, or will do. These action verbs are usually easy to identify, especially when the action is a familiar one, such as swim, talk, buy, chew, study, or explode.

Linking Verbs

Other verbs show a relationship between the subject and a completer that follows the subject. The completer usually describes or renames the subject, and the linking verb links the subject to this completer.

Subject

Linking Verb

Completer

Mr. Lopez

is

my Spanish teacher.

He

seems

tired.

Tacos

taste

good.

The linking verb used most frequently is some form of the verb be (am, is are, was, were). Some other linking verbs are seem, grow, look, sound, taste, and appear.

Exercise 2.1

In the following sentences, underline the verbs and write them on the lines at the right.

1. The train stops for only a few moments at Oakhurst.

____________

The train stopped for only a few moments at Oakhurst.

____________

2. Gene hurries to get on the train already in motion.

____________

Gene hurried to get on the train already in motion.

____________

3. He trips over a woman’s suitcase in the aisle.

____________

He tripped over a woman’s suitcase in the aisle.

____________

4. Gene and the woman glare at each other.

____________

Gene and the woman glared at each other.

____________

5. In his seat at last, he watches the dawn through the smeary windows of the train.

____________

In his seat at last, he watched the dawn through the smeary windows of the train.

____________

The verbs in Exercise 2.1 form the past tense by adding -d or -ed to the base form. Most verbs follow this pattern. These are called regular verbs.

Verbs change their forms to indicate the time the action takes place. We call this sign of time tense. The present tense is used in commands and suggestions and to indicate habitual action or continuing ability.

Examples: Command: Deliver this message immediately.

Suggestion: Discourage them from coming if you can.

Habitual action: He paints beautifully.

Present progressive tense indicates that something is taking place right now and may continue to occur for a while. The words now and right now often indicate the use of the present progressive tense.

Examples: I am driving carefully.

He is chopping the onions now.

The past tense is used in sentences about action that happened before the present time. Say “Yesterday” at the beginning of the sentence to remind you to use the past tense.

Examples: Yesterday he chopped the onions for tonight’s dinner.

Here is a chart showing the pattern of the regular verbs in the present and the past tenses.

Model Verb-Walk

Exercise 2.2

Underline the verb in each of the following sentences. Write the present tense form of each verb on the line at the right.

1. Momoko planned a ski vacation in the mountains.

____________

2. She worked extra hours at her job.

____________

3. She saved half of her paycheck every week.

____________

4. Momoko opened a special bank account.

____________

5. She watched her money grow very slowly.

____________

6. She waited for the first heavy snowfall.

____________

7. She listened to the weather forecast every day.

____________

8. Finally, the weather changed.

____________

9. It snowed for three days and nights.

____________

10. Momoko removed her money from the bank happily.

____________

2.2 Present and Past Tenses: Irregular Verbs

Most verbs are regular verbs. We add -d or -ed to them to form the past tense. Verbs that do not add -d or -ed to form the past tense are called irregular verbs. Use your dictionary to find the past tense of irregular verbs or consult the chart of irregular verbs that follows.

Here is a chart listing some of the most commonly used irregular verbs.

Exercise 2.3

All of the verbs in the following sentences are present tense forms of irregular verbs. Underline each verb. Then write the past tense form of each verb on the line at the right.

Example: The convention begins on Thursday.

began

1. Jugglers meet once a year at an international convention.

____________

2. They come from all age groups and many occupations.

____________

3. Each one gives a demonstration of his or her specialty.

____________

4. Everyone makes his or her presentation unique.

____________

5. These artists throw just about everything from cigar boxes to gold lamb beanbags up in the air.

____________

6. Some ride unicycles during their performances.

____________

7. One man even eats parts of an apple and a cucumber in his act.

____________

8. Jugglers have their names in the Guinness Book of World Records.

____________

9. Rastelli, an Italian juggler, still holds the record: ten balls or eight plates in motion at once.

____________

10. Amateur or professional, jugglers keep things on the move.

____________

2.3 Principal Forms of Verbs

When you change the spelling of a verb, you are changing the form of the verb. All verbs have five principal forms.

1. The present or base form is the verb without any changes in spelling. It is used with the pronouns I, you, we, and they and with plural nouns.

Examples:   walk    see

2. The present +s form is spelled by adding an -s or -es to the base form. It is used with singular nouns and with the pronouns he, she, and it.

Examples:   walks    sees

3. The past form is spelled by adding -d or -ed to a regular verb. Irregular verbs change the base form spelling in different ways. They should be memorized. The past form is used with all pronouns and nouns.

Examples:   walked    saw

4. The past participle is spelled the same as the past form in regular verbs. Irregular verbs that change the spelling should be memorized. The past participle is used with a form of the auxiliary verb have.

Examples:   has walked    has seen

5. The present participle is spelled by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. It is used with a form of the auxiliary verb be.

Examples:   am walking    am seeing

All VERBS form the PRESENT PARTICIPLE by adding -ing to the PRESENT form:

Some verbs, however, require a spelling change:

A. Drop a final, unpronounced e before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.

B. Double a final single consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel: (1) if the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a word of one syllable, and (2) if the consonant is preceded by a single vowel.

Exercise 2.4

Add -ing to these words.

1. let ___________________

2. jump ___________________

3. hit ___________________

4. occur ___________________

5. drip ___________________

6. wrap ___________________

7. return ___________________

8. swim ___________________

9. scream ___________________

10. get ___________________

Exercise 2.5

Write the principal forms of the following regular verbs. Use your dictionary.

Example:

Principle Forms of Irregular Verbs

Unlike regular verbs, irregular verbs do not form their past and past participles by adding -d or -ed to the present form. Instead, they use some other change in form or they don’t change at all:

begin-began-begun      go-went-gone      set-set-set

Exercise 2.6

Write the principal forms of the following irregular verbs.

Example:

2.4 Auxiliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb is often added to the main verb to form the verb in a sentence. The present participle and the past participle forms are not used alone as the verb in a sentence. They are preceded by an auxiliary verb.

Example: Do not write:

Thomas taking his brother to the park.

Do write:

Thomas is taking his brother to the park.

Note: When the verb phrase is underlined in this book, one line will indicate the auxiliary verb and two lines, the main verb. Example: will be speaking

The auxiliary verb has two main uses. First, the auxiliary verb indicates shades of meaning that cannot be expressed by a main verb alone.

He might go to college.

He can go to college.

He should go to college.

Would he go to college?

Second, the auxiliary verb indicates tense—the time the action of the verb takes place.

He is going to college.

He will go to college.

He has gone to college.

He does go to college.

Note that in a question, the subject separates the auxiliary verb and the main verb.

Will he go to college?

Auxiliary verbs are commonly divided into two groups.

Group 1: The following words are used with main verbs, but they are not used as verbs alone except in answer to a question. They signal the approach of a main verb.

Exercise 2.7

Underline the auxiliary verb once and the main verb twice. There may be more than one auxiliary verb.

Example: I would like to place an order.

1. Do you shop at home?

2. You might have received a mail-order catalog from time to time.

3. Many people have found these catalogs convenient.

4. Years ago, farm families could send for clothes and household needs.

5. Today, urban shoppers can order a variety of goods from specialty stores.

Group 2: The following verbs may be used as auxiliary verbs or as main verbs. When they serve as auxiliaries, another form of a verb is used as the main verb of the verb phrase.

Remember

1. A sentence must always have a main verb, but it may or may not have an auxiliary verb.

2. If the sentence has an auxiliary verb, it is always placed in front of the main verb.

3. In a question, the subject separates the auxiliary verb and the main verb.

Exercise 2.8

In the following sentences, underline the auxiliary verb or verbs once and the main verb twice. Do not underline the contraction for not (n’t).

Example: I didn’t understand the question.

1. Many injured athletes have been helped by a new instrument called an arthroscope.

2. With the arthroscope, doctors can see inside the knee.

3. The doctor can examine bones and tissues.

4. The surgery may be done within an hour.

5. Without the arthroscope, a doctor must cut open the knee.

Summary

1. Present and past participles must be accompanied by an auxiliary verb.

2. Present and past participles cannot function alone as the verbs of a sentence.

3. Be, have, and do sometimes function as auxiliary verbs.

I have finished my homework. I didn’t speak to him.

I was eating.

4. Be, have, and do often function alone in a sentence as main verbs.

I have a penny. I do my homework. I was an only child.

Exercise 2.9

Fill in the correct form of the main verb in parentheses to complete the sentence. Consult the chart of irregular verbs or your dictionary.

Adverbs

An adverb is a modifier that adds further information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. The following adverbs, in addition to others, frequently appear between auxiliary verbs and main verbs. These words are not auxiliary verbs. Do not underline them as verbs.

Examples: Television will never completely replace the radio.

The football game has just ended.

Contractions

In conversation and informal writing, two words are often joined together with an apostrophe that takes the place of any missing letters. The contraction for not (n’t) may be added to many auxiliaries, for example:

Note: n’t is not an auxiliary verb; do not underline it as one.

Examples: We hadn’t seen them for years.

The mechanic couldn’t repair the car in one day.

Exercise 2.10

In the following sentences, underline the auxiliary verb or verbs once and the main verb twice. Put parentheses around any adverbs or contractions.

Example: Cassandra does(n’t) smoke cigarettes any longer.

1. Dr. Dimaio isn’t in her office today.

2. You should always practice your scales.

3. My boss must certainly give me a raise.

4. Tim may travel to New Orleans next month.

5. Could you close the window for me?

2.5 Future Tense

The future tense is used for sentences about something that will happen in the future. The future tense is formed by using the auxiliary verbs will or would and the base form of the main verb. Here is a chart showing the pattern of all verbs in the future tense.

Model Verb—Walk

Although it is correct to express future action by using the present progressive tense (I am going to graduate in June.), use only the future tense (I will graduate in June.) when you are writing the exercises in this lesson.

Exercise 2.11

Complete the following sentences by using the future tense of the verb in the parentheses.

Will and Would

Will points to the future from the present.

know/will

Would points to the future from the past.

knew/would

a. You know that you will do well in this class.

In sentence a, “you know” now (in the present) that “you will do well” in the future.

b. You knew that you would do well in this class.

In sentence b, “you knew” then (in the past) that “you would do well” in the future.

Exercise 2.12

In the following sentences, fill in will or would to indicate the future.

1. Herb knows that he ______________ win someday.

2. Herb knew that he ______________ win someday.

3. Wu arrives early so he ______________ get the best seats.

4. Wu arrived early so he ______________ get the best seats.

5. He says that he ______________ hire a band.

6. He said that he ______________ hire a band.

2.6 Perfect Tenses

In the lesson on auxiliary verbs, you used the perfect tenses in some of the verbs that you identified or wrote. The name perfect tenses gives no clue to the uses of these tenses. Study the following examples to learn how to use the perfect tenses.

A. The present perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb have in the present tense plus the past participle of the main verb.

Model Verb—Run

Use the present perfect tense to show that an action began in the past and has continued until now, or that an action has just happened. It is often used to show that an action occurred at an indefinite time in the past. Adverbs such as just and already are commonly included.

Exercise 2.13

Fill in the present perfect tense of the verb given in the parentheses. Use the chart of irregular verbs or your dictionary.

Example: Mike has seen all the home games of the Dallas Cowboys this season.

B. The past perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb had plus the past participle of the main verb.

Model Verb—Run

Use the past perfect tense to show that one action happened before another action in the past. Use it only when you are writing in the past tense.

Exercise 2.14

Fill in the past perfect tense of the verb given in parentheses. Use the chart of irregular verbs or your dictionary.

Example: After we had seen the play, we went to a restaurant for dessert.

C. The future perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verbs will have plus the past participle of the main verb.

Model Verb—Run

Use the future perfect tense to show that something will happen in the future by a specific time.

Exercise 2.15

Fill in the future perfect tense of the verb given in parentheses. Use the chart of irregular verbs or your dictionary.

Example: By the time her trip is over, Anita will have seen every state in the United States.

1. (learn) By this time next week, you _________ _________                how to drive a car.

2. (pay) By this time next year, Paul _________ _________                for the car.

3. (live) By next June they _________ _________                in that house for twenty years.

4. (go) By September I _________ _________                to college for two years.

5. (speak) By election day the candidate _________ _________                at ninety meetings.

2.7 Tense Shift Problems

Do not shift tenses in the middle of a sentence, a paragraph, or an essay unless you have a reason to do so. If you begin writing in the present tense, don’t shift to the past. If you begin in the past, don’t shift to the present.

Incorrect:

Kite flying is a good way to meet people. They were curious when they saw my kite up there. They wonder why I waste my time with a kite.

Shifts from present to past tense and back to present tense.

Correct:

Kite flying is a good way to meet people. They are curious when they see my kite up there. They wonder why I waste my time with a kite.

All the verbs are in the present tense.

Correct:

Kite flying was a good way to meet people. They were curious when they saw my kite up there. They wondered why I wasted my time with a kite.

All the verbs are in the past tense.

Exercise 2.16

Some of the following sentences contain shifts in tense. Identify each error by drawing a line under the incorrect verb. Write the correct form above the word.

1. Last Tuesday night I went to the library because I had a test in history on Wednesday morning. It is too noisy at home to study. My brother is playing the stereo, my mother was vacuuming, and my little sister and her friend are chasing each other around the house. How am I supposed to concentrate with all that commotion?

2. My friend Greg loves peanut butter. Every morning he spread peanut butter on his toast or waffles. He snacked on peanut butter cups at school, and, of course, he ate peanut butter sandwiches for lunch every day. Nowadays he bakes his own peanut butter cookies because his mother had refused to make them anymore. Greg was a hopeless case; he even covers a slice of chocolate cake with peanut butter.

3. My wife and I bought a golden retriever puppy last year. We made the mistake on the first few nights of allowing the puppy to sleep on a rug by our bed because he misses his brothers and sisters. Later when we made a bed for him in the laundry room, he howls and scratches on the door for several hours every night. After a while the neighbors call on the telephone to complain about the noise. We thought that he will never give up. The puppy finally learned to sleep by himself, and the neighbors start speaking to us again.

Chapter 3

The Sentence

3.1 Subjects and Verbs

The subject of a sentence is the person or the thing the verb is asking or telling about. The subject may be a noun or a pronoun. Every sentence must have at least one subject and one verb and express a complete thought.

Example: The tourists have returned home. Subject = tourists.

To find the subject ask, “Who have returned home?” The answer, “The tourists,” is the subject.

Finding Subjects and Verbs

1. First, find the verb. Underline the auxiliary verb once and the main verb twice.

Fish swim.        They can play.

2. Then, find the noun or pronoun subject by asking who or what with the verb, Circle the subject.

What swim? swim.        Who can play? can play.
The answer gives you the noun or pronoun subject circled previously.

3. If the sentence asks a question, put the sentence in the form of a statement to help you find the subject and the verb.

Are the children playing? Change to: The children are playing.

Then ask: Who are playing? The answer gives you the subject. The are playing.

4. Remember that every sentence must have at least one subject and one verb.

Exercise 3.1

Underline the auxiliary verb once and the main verb twice. Circle the subject. The last sentence has more than one subject and verb.

Example: Has the arrived yet?

1. Does a Scotsman wear anything under his kilt?

2. Americans can satisfy their curiosity without a trip to the Highland Games in Scotland.

3. Similar festivals are held in the United States each year.

4. The numerous events include many tests of strength, such as contests for shot putters, hammer throwers, and caber (pole) tossers.

5. During the caber toss, the contestants are throwing 100-pound, eighteen-foot poles with remarkable balance and accuracy.

Commands and Requests

Each sentence must have at least one subject and one verb, but the verb can stand alone in a sentence without a stated subject in a command or request.

The subject in such a sentence is “you, understood.” In other words, it is understood that the subject is “you.”

Exercise 3.2

Fill in the blanks with verbs that command or request.

1. _______________ to the party tomorrow.

2. _______________ your name here.

3. _______________ the door.

4. _______________ me here after class.

5. _______________ a glass of punch.

3.2 Prepositional Phrases

Not many sentences have subjects and verbs as easy to recognize as those in the sentences you have been working with. We usually add words to the subject and the verb to give more information about them. Sometimes we use one word, sometimes a group of words. A group of words introduced by a preposition and known as a prepositional phrase is often used to expand the subject and the verb.

Prepositions are the short words that show position, relationship, or direction. For example, if you were trying to give the location of your pencil, you might say: The pencil is on the desk. Or, the pencil is under the desk. The prepositions are on and under. The prepositional phrases are on the desk and under the desk.

Each prepositional phrase contains at least two words: a preposition (P) and an object (O). The object (O) is always a noun or a pronoun.

Some prepositional phrases contain adjectives that come between the preposition and the object. These words describe the object.

Commonly Used Prepositions

Position

Direction

Relationship

about

at

as

above

beyond

because of

across

down

but

after

from

by

against

in

except

along

into

for

before

on

like

during

to

of

near

toward

since

until

up

with

In this chapter bracket ([]) all prepositional phrases in sentences to help locate the subjects and verbs of the sentences. The main reason for learning to recognize prepositional phrases is to help find the subject and the verb of a sentence. One common mistake in identifying the subject of a sentence is confusing it with a noun used as the object of the preposition. Any word that is part of the prepositional phrase cannot be the subject of the sentence.

Exercise 3.3

Bracket all the prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Use the chart to help you identify the prepositions.

Example: Many young Americans work [in Washington, D.C.]

1. Since 1789 young Americans between the ages of fourteen and eighteen have served as congressional pages in our nation’s capital.

2. Some work during vacation while others leave their families and friends to live in Washington, D.C., for a year, continuing high school classes at Page School in the Library of Congress.

3. A page delivers mail, answers telephone calls, and runs errands for members of Congress from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

4. Not all legislators approve of the present system. One senator believes that the pages’ work is demeaning and that they should be at home with their parents.

5. Most pages would not agree, for despite the pressures of a busy schedule, they enjoy their work and the excitement of national political life.

Prepositions of Two or More Words

These prepositions are made up of two or more words as in the sentence: I made the cake according to those directions.

according to

in addition to

in spite of

along with

in case of

on account of

because of

in front of

on top of

by means of

in the middle of

out of

contrary to

in place of

together with

for the sake of

instead of

with reference to

Exercise 3.4

Bracket all the prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Use the lists given earlier to help you identify the prepositions.

Example: [In the middle of the night,] the telephone rang.

1. The rack on top of the car will hold our skis and several pieces of luggage.

2. Instead of a salad, Kevin prefers soup with his dinner.

3. The man in front of me complained about the long wait in line.

4. After two innings, the baseball game at Yankee Stadium was called because of rain.

5. The mayor, together with several council members, participated in a panel discussion on the city’s transit problems.

3.3 Direct Objects of Action Verbs

Some action verbs may be followed by a direct object to complete the meaning of the sentence. To find the direct object of the verb, place what or whom after the subject and the verb.

Finding the Direct Object of the Verb

1. Gail’s bicycle needs a new tire.

2.

3.

4. Therefore, the noun tire is the object.

Exercise 3.5

A. Place brackets around the prepositional phrases.

B. Write the word that is the direct object of the verb on the line at the right. If there is no object, leave the space blank.

Direct Object

coffee

1. My uncle plays for the Dodgers.

___________

2. The children asked many questions today.

___________

3. Did you order food from the dell?

___________

4. Marilyn sang in the choir last year.

___________

5. Can Steve play the guitar?

___________

3.4 Linking Verbs

Action verbs tell what the subject does, did, or will do.

Linking verbs do not tell what the subject does. Linking verbs are verbs of being. They include all forms of the verb be—am, is, are, was, were, been, and being—and other verbs such as seem, feel, become, and appear, which can be substituted for forms of be. Linking verbs link the subject with another word in the sentence that is called the completer.

1. The verb links the subject to a noun completer that renames the subject.

2. The verb links the subject to an adjective completer that describes the subject.

Linking Verbs

In the following examples, S = subject and C = completer.

Some of these linking verbs can also be used as action verbs. When used as action verbs, they may be followed by direct objects. They may also be used as action verbs without direct objects. Study these examples:

In sentences d and e, the action verbs are followed by direct objects. In sentence f, the action verb is not followed by a direct object. Remember that these verbs are linking verbs only when they are followed by a word or phrase that renames or describes the subject of the sentence, as in sentences a, b, and c.

Exercise 3.6

Circle the subject, underline the auxiliary and the main verbs, and label the completer in each of the following sentences.

1. My daughter is a first-year student at Jackson Community College.

2. Everyone seemed happy about the election results.

3. The traffic light is finally turning green.

4. Marie and Kevin have just become partners.

5. Can you be the moderator of our next discussion?

3.5 Pronouns Used as Subjects and Objects

Subject Pronouns

Subject pronouns are used primarily as the subjects of sentences or clauses. They also are used after all forms of the verb be in formal writing.

Example: It is I. (In conversation, most people would say, “It’s me.”)

Subject Pronouns

Person

Singular

Plural

First

I

we

Second

you

you

Third

he, she, it

they

Exercise 3.7

Referring to the forms in the box above, underline the subject pronouns in the following sentences.

Example: They enjoy bowling because it is good exercise.

1. He removed the tire because it was flat.

2. Have you seen Pat since she returned from Chicago?

3. As parents, you will be interested in this program we are proposing.

4. They read the instructions carefully.

5. Every Saturday I play tennis.

Object Pronouns

Object pronouns have two main uses: as objects of verbs and as objects of prepositions. As the objects of verbs, they usually follow the verbs.

Object pronouns can also be objects of prepositions, words such as in, to, with, and for:

Objects always follow the preposition:

Object Pronouns

Person

Singular

Plural

First

me

us

Second

you

you

Third

him, her, it

them

Exercise 3.8

Referring to the forms in the box, underline the object pronouns in the following sentences.

Example: The coach gave the awards to him.

1. The stereo is too loud; turn it down.

2. Eduardo met us at Disney World.

3. Terry will wait for her.

4. Did Todd tell you about them?

5. The news pleased me.

3.6 Compound Subjects, Verbs, and Objects

Until now, most of the sentences in this book have contained simple subjects and simple verbs. Many sentences, however, have compound subjects and compound verbs. A compound subject is made up of two or more subjects joined by coordinating connectives, such as and or or. A compound verb is made up of two or more verbs joined by coordinating connectives, such as and or or.

Objects and completers can also be compound.

Compound Object

Compound Completer

Pronouns in Compound Subjects and Objects

Compound subjects and objects can be a problem when they include pronouns. For example, what pronouns would you place in these blanks?

1. Bob and _______________ (me, I) went to the game Friday.

2. We waited for Tom and _______________ (he, him) after class.

I is correct in sentence 1 because I is the subject of the verb. Him is correct in sentence 2 because him is the object of the preposition for.

When you are in doubt about the form of a pronoun in sentences like these, leave out the noun subject or the noun object and the connective and read the sentence with the pronoun by itself.

1. Bob and I went to the game Friday. (You read, “I went to the game Friday” because you wouldn’t say, “Me went to the game Friday.”)

2. We waited for Tom and him after class. (You read, “We waited for him after class” because you wouldn’t say, “We waited for he after class.”)

Sometimes you might have to change the sentence slightly:

Bob and ____________________ (me, I) have been friends for years. Change to: I have been Bob’s friend for years.

Exercise 3.9

Underline the correct pronoun.

Example: My brother and (I, me) want to buy a condominium together.

1. We want to find one that has a bedroom for (he, him) and one for me.

2. (He, Him) and (I, me) have been sharing one bedroom for a long time.

3. There has never been any trouble between (we, us).

4. The real estate agent asked whether my brother and (I, me) need two bathrooms.

5. My brother said that (he, him) and (I, me) need two bedrooms and two bathrooms.

3.7 Contractions

You learned that the contraction for not (n’t) may be added to many auxiliary verbs (do not = don’t; does not = doesn’t). Contractions may also be formed by combining pronoun subjects and verbs. In writing contractions, do not omit the apostrophe. Note in the following examples that the apostrophe replaces the letter or the letters that have been omitted.

Omitting Letters in a Verb

Examples: She is my sister. She’s my sister.

She will have to explain. She’ll have to explain.

In each of these examples, a pronoun (she) and a verb (is, will) have been combined. The apostrophe takes the place of the letter i in is and the letters wi in will. She is = she’s; she will = she’ll.

Omitting the i in Here is and There is

Contractions may also be formed by combining there with is and here with is.

Examples: There is John now. There’s John now.

Here is your book. Here’s your book.

In both cases the apostrophe takes the place of the letter i in is. Note: There are and here are are never contracted. Furthermore, when a sentence begins with the words here is or there is, the noun that follows the verb is the subject.

Exercise 3.10

Supply the contractions for these words.

1. she will

she’ll

2. they have

__________

3. he had

__________

4. he is

__________

5. I will

__________

6. I am

__________

7. we have

__________

8. here is

__________

9. it is

__________

10. we are

__________

3.8 Sentence Patterns

There are four basic sentence patterns.

Pattern 1. Subject-Verb (S-V) Sentences following this pattern may have only a subject and a verb:

This pattern, of course, can have compound subjects and/or verbs:

Modifiers, however, are frequently included in the sentence:

Pattern 2. Subject-Verb-Object (S-V-O) In addition to the subject and verb, Pattern 2 requires a direct object. The verb, as in Pattern 1, is an action verb, and the object may be single or compound.

Pattern 3. Subject-Linking Verb-Noun Completer (S-LV-NC) In this pattern, a linking verb connects the subject and the noun complete!. The completer may be single or compound.

Pattern 4. Subject-Linking Verb-Adjective Completer (S-LV-AC) The first three sentence patterns require only nouns and verbs. In this pattern, the verb links an adjective to the subject. The adjective completer may be single or compound.

Exercise 3.11

Complete the sentences by filling in the appropriate subjects, verbs, direct objects, noun completers, and adjective completers. Identify the sentence patterns on the lines at the right.

Sentence Pattern

Example: Traffic was heavy.

S-LV-AC

1. Our conference was a/an ___________.

__________________

2. I have lost the ___________.

__________________

3. ___________ growl.

__________________

4. Troy likes ___________.

__________________

5. The child ___________ and ___________.

__________________

6. That lesson seems ___________.

__________________

7. ___________ and ___________ are dancing.

__________________

8. Marie has become a/an ___________.

__________________

9. Mr. McBride bought a/an ___________.

__________________

10. This T-shirt is ___________, ___________, and ___________.

__________________

Chapter 4

Expanding the Sentence

4.1 Adding Details with Adjectives

The sentences you completed for the exercises in the first three chapters are just a beginning. Readers usually ask more of the writer—more color, more variety, more information—in short, more specific details. Adjectives added to nouns, and adverbs added to verbs give the reader additional information by further describing and qualifying the nouns and verbs.

Adjectives

An adjective makes a noun or pronoun specific or concrete by limiting and describing it.

Kinds of Adjectives

Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Nouns The possessive form of the pronoun is called an adjective because it describes and qualifies nouns: his book, my book. The possessive form of a noun is also called an adjective. Your reader knows exactly what house you are talking about when you write Gene’s house or the Martins’ house. The possessive nouns are modifying the noun “house” and are, therefore, adjectives.

Exercise 4.1

Bracket all possessive pronouns and possessive nouns.

Example: The bike [riders’] protests were loud when they heard that [their] lanes of traffic would be closed.

1. New York City’s chief engineer maintains its highways and bridges.

2. His main job is to keep the city’s bridges from decaying and collapsing.

3. Today’s larger trucks have ruined many of America’s roads and bridges.

4. In addition, although salt is used successfully to melt snow, the salt’s acidity has destroyed our highways.

5. The chief engineer’s judgments about repairs affect many people’s lives.

Noun Markers Noun markers indicate that a noun will follow.

Noun Markers

Some of these words seem to point to the noun:

that truck.

Others limit the noun:

few people.

Numbers All numbers are adjectives. They modify and qualify the noun by telling how many.

Examples: five apples     fifty dollars     twenty-four hours

Descriptive Adjectives The adjectives above do not actually describe nouns. To give the reader a mental picture of something, the writer chooses adjectives that describe the qualities or characteristics of it.

Position of Adjectives

1. The adjective usually appears in front of the noun:

2. But the adjective can follow the noun it modifies:

These adjectives are completers following the linking verb was.

These present participles are adjectives modifying the noun team. Notice that two of them, laughing and shouting, follow the noun.

Special Forms of Adjectives

1. Sometimes present and past participles are used as adjectives:

2. When a noun precedes another noun, the first noun is used as an adjective to describe or limit the second noun:

3. Prepositional phrases are also used as adjectives.

Of application specifies the kind of letters that Toshiro sent; therefore, the phrase is an adjective.

Exercise 4.2

In the following sentences, bracket all the participles and nouns used as adjectives.

Example: Alex spent an [exciting] time at the [opening pro-football] game.

1. In his box seat, Alex watched a closely fought battle.

2. The turning point came for the home team during the last few minutes of the game.

3. Everyone praised the winning pass of the rookie quarterback and the clever tactics of the head coach.

4. The excited fans roared as the place kicker sent the ball through the uprights of the goal post for the extra point.

5. The winning team, laughing and shouting, ran off the football field.

How to Choose Adjectives

When writers choose adjectives to create a picture for the reader, they are asking themselves questions about their subjects.

1. What kind?

Example: dancing lessons

“Dancing” tells what kind of lessons.

2. How many?

Example: ten lessons

“Ten” tells how many lessons.

3. Which one?

Example: the last lesson

“Last” tells which one.

4. Whose?

Example: Judy’s lesson

“Judy’s” tells whose.

Questions like these can help writers to add details to a sentence.

Exercise 4.3

Bracket all the adjectives in the following paragraph.

It is [a] [beautiful], [sunny] day in [a] [popular] [theme] park in [the] United States. Mr. and Mrs. Tomita, on their first trip to this country, listen attentively to a tour guide’s claim that thirty-five thousand adults and children visit the park every day. Most visitors to this magical place are attracted by an amazing variety of shows, rides, exhibits, and restaurants. Both Mr. and Mrs. Tomita, however, are impressed by the clean surroundings. They are staying at the vacationland’s hotel where all the rooms have immaculately clean blue plastic furniture, green and beige walls, and beds covered with purple-green spreads. The hotel’s parking lot, with its carefully planted vegetation, is also sparkling clean. The smallest scrap of litter is sucked underground and rushed via pipes to a fabulous trash compactor. Even the friendly birds do their part by picking some bread crumbs off the restaurant’s patio at the hotel. Mr. and Mrs. Tomita know that they will enjoy themselves in this spotless American tourist attraction.

Punctuating Adjectives Before a Noun

Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun if they are not linked by a coordinating connective such as and or but.

Examples: a. The irritated candidate
spoke in a loud, indignant voice.

b. The reporter’s harsh and probing questions annoyed the candidate, (no comma needed)

Exercise 4.4

Insert commas as needed in the following sentences.

1. Bradley and Carol tried to talk to the instructor in the cluttered noisy office he shared with two other people.

2. Twenty-five airline passengers were rescued from the frigid ice-covered Potomac River.

3. Driving a battered rusty old Volkswagen is more fun than driving a luxurious shiny new Cadillac.

4. Walt admired the graceful elegant and stately style of the dancer.

5. Mary insisted on wearing the old-fashioned clumsy worn-out slippers around the house.

Study Chapter 8 for additional material on this use of the comma.

Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives have three forms: positive (base form), comparative, and superlative. Most adjectives change their form for use in comparisons. For example, soft, softer, softest show differences in degree.

Comparative Degree

a. Walt is strong.

b. Dan is stronger than Walt.

The first sentence simply tells us about one quality of Walt: his strength. The second sentence compares Walt’s strength to Dan’s strength. Stronger is the comparative form of the adjective strong.

Superlative Degree

a. Pete is the strongest of all.

b. He the strongest wrestler on the team.

Strongest is the superlative form of the adjective strong. Superlative forms are often followed by prepositional phrases as shown in the examples just given.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives

1. Add -er to adjectives of one syllable.

Add -est to adjectives of one syllable.

2. Place the words more or most before adjectives of two or more syllables.

brilliant

more brilliant

most brilliant

dangerous

more dangerous

most dangerous

exciting

more exciting

most exciting

Exception: To form the comparative of two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, change the -y to -i and add -er. To form the superlative add -est.

happy

happier

happiest

lovely

lovelier

loveliest

lazy

lazier

laziest

Use the comparative form to compare two or more persons, places, ideas, or things.

Use the superlative form to compare more than two persons, places, ideas, or things.

Example: Marion is the tallest player on our team.

Less and Least Less and least may be substituted for more and most to show a lesser degree in a comparison.

Comparative (followed by than)

Superlative (followed by of or other prepositions)

less dangerous

least dangerous

less comfortable

least comfortable

Exercise 4.5

Fill in the blanks with words that show a lesser degree of comparison.

1. The speaker was _______________ interesting than I had expected.

2. Highway 10 is the _______________ dangerous way of all through the mountains.

3. That house is _______________ expensive than the one we looked at this morning.

4. I am the _______________ creative member of our family.

5. The baby seems _______________ sleepy than she was an hour ago.

Exercise 4.6

Change the adjective in parentheses into the comparative or superlative degree. The first sentence is completed as an example.

1. Buying a computer for home or business may be the purchase you will make in the next ten years.

2. The computer you choose for the home will soon be to use than the telephone.

3. It will enable you to have a method of controlling the family budget.

4. You should be sure to buy a computer that can be upgraded to a model sometime in the future.

5. The data-processing computer has become the addition to the business world.

6. Some computerized information systems offer businesses productivity.

7. They even promise use of energy.

8. The use of computers encourages business procedures.

9. The computer systems are powerful enough to process company payrolls.

10. The computer you buy for home or business should be the quality at the price.

4.2 Adding Details with Adverbs

Another kind of modifier is an adverb. Adverbs add further information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Study the following tests for an adverb.

Tests for Adverbs

1. Ask the question, When?

Example: I ran five miles yesterday.

The word yesterday tells when I ran five miles.

2. Ask the question, How?

Example: I ran five miles slowly.

The word slowly tells how I ran five miles.

3. Ask the question, Where?

Example: I ran five miles around the track.

The words around the track tell where I ran five miles.

4. Ask the question, Why?

Example: I ran five miles for my health.

The words for my health tell why I ran five miles.

From these examples, you can see that an adverb can be a single word (yesterday) or a phrase (around the track). To determine if a word or group of words is an adverb, ask when, where, how, or why. Adverbs answer these questions.

Function of Adverbs

Adverbs are usually added to a basic sentence to give the reader more information.

Example:

She arrived.

basic sentence

She arrived early.

tells when she arrived

She arrived suddenly.

tells how she arrived

She arrived at my door.

tells where she arrived

She arrived to stay with me.

tells why she arrived

Basic Pattern 1 sentences need added information to make them more interesting to your reader. Adverbs add interest and information.

Note: A few words that are usually nouns sometimes function as adverbs.

They tell where he walked:

He walked home.

They tell how far:

He walked a mile.

They tell when:

He walked yesterday.

The adverb tells the time the action happened, the place it happened, the manner in which it happened, and the purpose of the action.

Position of Adverbs

The position of an adverb in a sentence is flexible; that is, it can be moved around in a sentence. The position of the adverb occasionally is correct in all the sentences in the following example:

Example: Occasionally she eats in the cafeteria.

She occasionally eats in the cafeteria.

She eats occasionally in the cafeteria.

She eats in the cafeteria occasionally.

Exercise 4.7

In the following sentences, write in one-word or prepositional-phrase adverbs of your choice on the lines. The sentences form a paragraph.

Example: Kimiko had been planning her vacation

1. Kimiko arrived after after a long flight

2. The pilot landed the plane and

3. All the passengers applauded .

4. Kimiko walked toward the exit door

5. She was thrilled to be after so many years.

Comparison of Adverbs

Adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, the superlative.

Forming Comparatives and Superlatives

1. To form the comparative of adverbs of one syllable, add -r or -er. To form the superlative, add -st or -est.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

late

later

latest

fast

faster

fastest

2. A few adverbs of one syllable are exceptions to rule 1. To form the comparative and superlative of these words, change the spelling of the adverb. Consult your dictionary.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

far

farther

farthest (physical distance)

far

further

furthest (mental degree)

well

better

best

3. To form the comparative of adverbs of more than one syllable, place more before the adverb. To form the superlative, place most before the adverb.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

beautifully

more beautifully

most beautifully

carefully

more carefully

most carefully

Exception:   badly     worse     worst

Use the comparative form when comparing two actions. Use the superlative form when comparing three or more actions.

Example: I had thought that Jan skated more gracefully than Marie. But then I saw Adele skate after the other two girls. Adele skated most gracefully of all.

Exercise 4.8

Change each adverb in parentheses into the comparative or superlative degree. The first is completed as an example.

1. Marty Porter, a night school student and the mother of three children under the age of ten, had decided to give up her full-time job.

2. She found herself performing these three demanding roles than her own high standards required.

3. The inability to organize her activities was not the problem; she planned each day than the last.

4. The company she worked for, however, did not want to lose a valuable employee like Mrs. Porter.

5. Her supervisor arranged a flexible schedule that allowed her to fulfill her obligations at home, at school, and at work.

4.3 Adding Details with Verbal Phrases

Verbal phrases can be indispensable additions to a basic sentence because they greatly increase the possibilities for expanding it.

Example: Carla waited.

Breathless and exhausted, Carla waited to hear the choreographer’s opinion of her audition.

Anxious to hear the choreographer’s opinion of her dancing, Carla waited, forgetting her exhaustion.

Verbals are formed from verbs and introduce verbal phrases. They usually include a noun and/or a prepositional phrase. They are used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs in sentences.

1. to choose a pet

The verbal is to choose, formed from to plus the present form of the verb.

2. chosen for its intelligence

The verbal is chosen, the past participle.

3. choosing a Seeing Eye dog

The verbal is choosing, the present participle.

Pay special attention to the first type of verbal phrase (to choose a pet) because it looks like a prepositional phrase. Read the information below carefully.

Note

The word to is used to introduce both verbal phrases and prepositional phrases. TO + A VERB = A VERBAL PHRASE

Example: to travel

TO + A NOUN AND ITS MODIFIERS =

A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

Example: to the moon

Exercise 4.9

A. In the following sentences, bracket all verbal and prepositional phrases.

B. Underline the auxiliary verb once and the main verb twice.

C. Circle the subjects.

Example: Many years ago [leading 200 of his Seminole tribe,] hid [in the Florida Everglades.]

1. Today 1,500 Seminole Indians live on the reservation built on 120,000 acres of swamp in the Florida Everglades.

2. A group of these Indians, living near Tampa, has defied the law.

3. In addition to a shrine and a museum, the Seminoles have built a drive-thru smoke shop there.

4. The Indians have been selling cigarettes without charging sales tax.

5. From the first, state and local law enforcers did not like these Indians to sell cigarettes.

Punctuation

At the beginning of a sentence, use a comma after an introductory verbal phrase.

Examples: Standing at the end of the line, I had little hope of getting a ticket.

Discouraged by the long line, I gave up and went home.

Exercise 4.10

Insert commas after the introductory verbal phrases.

1. Hoping to make a profit Carolyn invested in the stock market.

2. Trying to get to the airport on time Josephine got a ticket for speeding.

3. Snowed in for a week in the mountains we couldn’t get back in time to take our final exams.

4. Having spent the day shopping unsuccessfully for shoes Tina decided to wear her old ones to the party.

5. Finding a wallet on his way to school Jerry had visions of a generous reward.

For a more detailed discussion of this use of the comma, see Chapter 8.

4.4 Misplaced Modifiers and Dangling Modifiers

When you use modifiers in your sentences, be sure that the word order of each sentence is clear and logical. Placing a modifier in an incorrect position can change or confuse the meaning of the sentence. Modifiers should be placed close to the words that they describe or qualify. Learn to identify and correct misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers are exactly what the term suggests: these modifiers are called misplaced because they have been incorrectly placed next to words that they are not intended to modify.

Examples:

a. I nearly ate all the brownies. (misplaced modifier)

This sentence suggests that you didn’t eat anything at all. You should place nearly in front of all the brownies.

I ate nearly all the brownies. (correctly placed modifier)

b. I heard that our nation needs additional engineers on the television news. (misplaced modifier)

The engineers are not needed on the television news, are they? You should place on the television news after the verb heard.

I heard on the television news that our nation needs additional engineers. (correctly placed modifier)

c. Coretta bought a German shepherd dog alarmed by the robberies in the neighborhood. (misplaced modifier)

If the dog is alarmed by the robberies, it is not going to make a good watchdog. You should place the verbal phrase modifier in front of Coretta.

Alarmed by the robberies in the neighborhood, Coretta bought a German shepherd dog. (correctly placed modifier)

Exercise 4.11

Revise the following sentences by placing the words or phrases in parentheses next to the words that they modify.

Examples: Eileen ran after the bus. (carrying a heavy briefcase)

Carrying a heavy briefcase, Eileen ran after the bus.

1. Nick saved $100 by making his own repairs on his car. (almost)

2. The candidate promised that he would reduce unemployment. (at the political rally)

3. Alfredo ordered a pizza to go. (with mushrooms and pepperoni)

4. The painters told us that they would begin painting the house. (on Wednesday)

5. Rex saw a woman in the front row jump up and run out the side exit. (suddenly)

Dangling Modifiers

A word or a phrase is called a dangling modifier when there is no word in the sentence for it to modify.

Example: Showing an interest in computers, personnel offices are flooded with applications.

Were the personnel offices showing an interest in computers? Of course not. The verbal phrase modifier, Showing an interest in computers, is left dangling. There is no word in the sentence for it to modify. To correct this problem, write the sentence as follows:

Showing an interest in computers, students are flooding personnel offices with applications.

A word such as students must be added to the sentence to eliminate the dangling modifier.

Another method of eliminating dangling modifiers changes the dangling word or phrase into a subordinate clause. You could correct the example given above as follows:

Because students are showing an interest in computers, personnel offices are flooded with applications.

Remember

You cannot get rid of a dangling modifier by moving it around in a sentence. Since there is no word in the sentence for it to modify, you must rewrite the sentence and add the word that the phrase modifies.

Exercise 4.12

Rewrite this paragraph on the lines provided. Correct the dangling modifiers in each sentence.

Expecting a robot like R2D2, the robot that was demonstrated to Willy was disappointing. Propelling itself on large wheels, Willy had hoped for useful arms and legs. Having limited mobility, stairs could not be climbed. Responding to voice command, a distance of less than seventy feet was necessary between the robot and its owner. Frustrated by the poor quality, his decision to buy a robot would have to be delayed.

Chapter 5

Main Clauses

5.1 Identifying Main Clauses

When you studied prepositional phrases and verbal phrases, you learned that a phrase is a group of related words without a subject and a verb. A group of related words with a subject and a verb is called a clause. There are two kinds of clauses, main and subordinate, but this chapter will deal only with the main clause (also called an independent clause).

To identify a main clause, look first for the verb and then for the subject. The main clause can stand alone as a sentence if the first word is capitalized and the clause ends with a mark of punctuation such as a period or a question mark. The main clause may also contain words or phrases in addition to the verb and the subject.

Exercise 5.1

In the following sentences, identify the underlined group of words as a phrase or a main clause. Write your answer on the line at the right.

1. Many people complain loudly about junk mail.

_______________

2. It arrives in large quantities daily.

_______________

3. Getting on these mailing lists is easy.

_______________

4. Companies have always exchanged information regarding consumers.

_______________

5. Rented memberships and subscription lists have been another resource used by advertisers.

_______________

5.2 Connecting Main Clauses

The Simple Sentence

In the preceding chapters, you have been working primarily with the simple sentence. The simple sentence contains one main clause. Which of the following two sentences is a simple sentence?

1. Mr. Hughes has dreamed of graduating.

2. For a long time since building his first race car nineteen years ago, Mr. Hughes has dreamed of graduating to the NASCAR Grand National Circuit.

Both sentences are simple sentences. Although the second sentence contains several phrases, it has only one main clause: one subject and one verb. Both sentences, as you can see, have the same subject and verb:

The Compound Sentence

Which of the following two sentences contains more than one main clause and, therefore, is not a simple sentence?

1. Thousands of drivers like Mr. Hughes test themselves on America’s hundreds of small dirt tracks, hoping to win $1,000, $100, or even just a trophy.

2. The race-car drivers hope to make it to the big-league tracks, and they love the thrill of driving at very high speeds.

The first sentence has only one subject and one verb:

It is a simple sentence with one main clause.

The second sentence, containing two main clauses, is a compound sentence. It has two subjects and two verbs:

Now try two more sentences. Which one is a simple sentence? Which one is a compound sentence?

1. Trying to avoid a head-on collision with another car, the driver turned his wheel sharply to the right and crashed into a wall.

2. He wanted to pull off the road, but he could not do it quickly enough.

The first sentence is a simple sentence with one main clause. The clause contains one subject and a compound verb:

The second sentence is a compound sentence. It has two main clauses: two subjects and two verbs.

Exercise 5.2

A. Begin by circling the subjects and underlining the verbs.

B. Identify each of the following sentences as simple or compound. If the sentence has only one main clause, write S (Simple) on the line at the right. If the sentence has two or more main clauses, write C (Compound) on the line at the right.

C

1. Some people think of Iowa as flat, but some bicyclists know better now.

____________

2. Every year about seven thousand bicyclists ride slowly and painfully across the state of Iowa.

____________

3. The ride begins at the Missouri River along the state’s western border, and it ends at its eastern edge along the Mississippi.

____________

4. Many riders complain about injured knees as well as sunburns.

____________

5. The bicyclists are surprised by the hills of Iowa, for the land had looked flat to them.

____________

Joining Main Clauses

There are three ways to join the main clauses of compound sentences. You may use (1) a coordinating connective, (2) a semicolon, or (3) an adverbial connective. Coordinating connectives (sometimes called coordinating conjunctions) are words used to join words, phrases, or clauses together.

Examples: Karen and Jessica
at work or at school
Karen studies, but Jessica watches TV.

Remember These Seven Coordinating Connectives

Put a comma before the coordinating connective when it joins two main clauses into a compound sentence.

Example: Suzanne was trying to lose weight, so she avoided eating desserts.

Exercise 5.3

Change these simple sentences into compound sentences by joining the main clauses with a comma and the coordinating connectives in the parentheses. Circle the subjects and underline the verbs.

1. (but)

The doctor was a well-known specialist. My father would not accept her diagnosis.

2. (and)

The pole vaulter tried again to break the record. This time he succeeded.

3. (so)

It is a large house. They will have room for all their furniture.

4. (for)

Andrea spent four hours a day practicing the flute. She was determined to improve.

5. (or)

We can drive to the beach. We can ride our bicycles.

A semicolon (;) may be used to connect main clauses.

Example: Suzanne read the health spa contract several times; she wanted to understand the terms before signing it.

Exercise 5.4

Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. On the lines at the right, identify each sentence as simple (S) or compound (C). Correct the compound sentences by joining the main clauses with semicolons.

1. Lucy likes to finish her homework before dinner after eating she gets sleepy.

____________

2. Vivian brought pictures of our high-school class to the reunion everyone laughed at the dated clothes and hairstyles.

____________

3. Arturo and his brother have borrowed money and opened a real estate office.

____________

4. Our neighbor was happy about his golf game today for the first time he had a lower score than his wife’s.

____________

5. The children entertained themselves for half an hour by riding up and down on the escalator.

____________

The adverbial connectives (sometimes called adverbial conjunctions) listed in the following box also may be used to join main clauses.

Addition:

also further in addition moreover

Contrast:

however instead nevertheless otherwise

Time:

meanwhile then

Result:

as a result consequently thus therefore

In Reality:

in fact indeed

Use a semicolon before the connectors and follow them by a comma.

Example: Suzanne has lost ten pounds; therefore, she is proud of herself.

You may need to consult your dictionary to be sure you are using these words correctly.

Exercise 5.5

Circle the subjects and underline the verbs. Choose an appropriate adverbial connective from the words in the following box to connect the main clauses in the following sentences. Use each connective only once. Punctuate the sentences correctly.

consequently    in addition    in fact    instead    then

1. We had planned to bicycle through England last summer. We painted the house and built a fence.

2. I forgot my umbrella this morning. I was soaked to the skin by the time I reached the office.

3. Milt works six hours a day and overtime on weekends at a restaurant. He takes three classes at a community college.

4. First Norman reads the comics. He settles down to enjoy the sports section.

5. Cindy looked very different with her new haircut. I hardly recognized her.

Punctuation

In simple sentences, some adverbial connectives serve as adverbs and are enclosed by commas. These adverbs do not join main clauses in a sentence as the adverbial connectives do.

Examples: Eric sometimes guesses correctly the meanings of words.
He should, nevertheless, consult a dictionary.

Exercise 5.6

Punctuate the following sentences correctly.

Example: A dictionary, indeed, can tell you the meaning of a word.

1. Besides that a dictionary shows you how to spell a word.

2. A dictionary in addition shows you how to divide a word into syllables.

3. It can tell you furthermore the origin and development of a word.

4. A dictionary in fact is a good source of biographical information.

5. You must however develop the habit of consulting it frequently.

5.3 Parallel Structure

Coordinating connectives join words, phrases, or clauses that are of equal importance. The word to notice in this definition is equal. Parallel structure, the placing of similar items in similar grammatical form, gives the writer another strategy for expanding a sentence in a balanced way.

Example a: Donna Chapman is a ranger.

Donna Chapman, former gardener, secretary, and short-order cook, is now a ranger in a large national park.

Parallel nouns (gardener, secretary, and short-order cook) give the reader more information about Ms. Chapman.

Example b: She loves her job.

She loves her job giving information to people, keeping the park in order, and preserving the natural beauty of the wild areas.

Parallel verbal phrases (giving ..., keeping ..., preserving ...) add details about the nature of Ms. Chapman’s job.

Faulty Parallelism

When you use parallel structure, always put the parts of the sentence that you are joining in the same grammatical form. For example, placing a noun before or, and, or but requires that another noun follow the connective (a swimmer, a golfer, or a jogger). Failure to do so results in faulty parallelism (a swimmer, a golfer, or jogging).

Exercise 5.7

In the following paragraph, underline all the words, phrases, and clauses that are parallel to each other.

Donna Chapman, former gardener, secretary, and short-order cook, is now a ranger in a large national park. She loves her job giving information to the people, keeping the park in order, and preserving the natural beauty of the wild areas. Every morning she puts on her uniform, packs her lunch, and rides her bicycle to her station, eager to start her work. She especially likes talking to the people who come to vacation in the park. Most faces are new to her, but others are familiar. Some park “regulars” have been coming there for thirty years. Whether it is sunny or rainy, sizzling or freezing, the visitors arrive to enjoy nature and to hike in the woods with their friends and families. Dedicated and enthusiastic, Donna Chapman is at her station, answering questions and being helpful. After shifting from job to job, she has found the one occupation that suits her perfectly.

Punctuation

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. The items may be single words, phrases, or clauses.

Example: Marty is taking courses in economics, typing, accounting, and statistics this semester.

Exercise 5.8

Insert commas where necessary.

1. Jackson Pollock dripped sand pebbles rocks and acrylic paint onto his canvases.

2. The orchestra will travel to Venezuela Argentina Peru Chile and Brazil on a tour of South America.

3. Jo Anne took a bath went back to her room closed the door turned on the radio and lay down on her bed.

4. Rita has never liked to clean to cook to iron or to shop.

5. On weekends Joseph enjoys flying hang gliders going deep-sea fishing or riding horseback.

See Chapter 8 for a more detailed explanation of this use of the comma.

5.4 Correcting Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

In 5.2, you learned that main clauses may be joined together with connecting words and appropriate punctuation marks. But sometimes students try to join main clauses without any connecting words or punctuation marks.

The error in sentence 1 is called a comma splice (CS). Sentence 2 is called a fused sentence (FS).

Correct comma splices and fused sentences in any one of the following ways:

1. Use a comma and a coordinating connective.

The team won the tournament, and they received a trophy.

2. Use a semicolon.

The team won the tournament; they received a trophy.

3. Use an adverbial connective and a semicolon and comma.

The team won the tournament; therefore, they received a trophy.

4. Use a period and a capital letter.

The team won the tournament, They received a trophy.

Exercise 5.9

Circle the subjects and underline the verbs in each sentence. Decide if there are two main clauses. On the line at the right, write CS for comma splice, FS for fused sentence, or NE for no error. Then punctuate the sentences correctly.

1. The children ran around the park their mothers tried to quiet them unsuccessfully.

____________

2. The traffic was unusually heavy this evening, it was caused by an accident at the intersection.

____________

3. The smog disappeared after the heavy rains it reappeared in a few days.

____________

4. In the early morning, many joggers are running.

____________

5. It was late, and all the lights in the house were out.

____________

Exercise 5.10

Correct these comma splices and fused sentences by using coordinating connectives, semicolons, or adverbial connectives with correct punctuation.

1. More corporations are beginning to open day-care centers for their employees’ children, the centers are open from nine to five.

2. Working parents take fewer days off if their children are well cared for they worry less.

3. Two-paycheck families appreciate the cost benefits, the price of a full-time babysitter would use up an entire salary.

4. Single-parent families especially appreciate the convenience of quality child-care programs child-care programs help to recruit high-quality employees.

5. Government support helps the corporations build special facilities, preschool playgrounds and indoor classrooms are often too expensive for smaller corporations to construct.

Chapter 6

Subordinate Clauses

6.1 Identifying Subordinate Clauses

A main clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. It is called a simple sentence when the first word is capitalized and it ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.

A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) is a group of words with a subject and a verb that is introduced by a subordinator. It is not called a sentence because it makes an incomplete statement.

The following subordinate clauses are incomplete by themselves. They should not be followed by periods.

Examples:

1. While the band took a break

2. Since you went away

They leave a question unanswered. You want to ask:

1. What happened while the band took a break?

2. What has happened since you went away?

They need another clause, the main clause, to answer these questions. You might complete the sentences as follows:

1. While the band took a break, I soaked my feet.

2. Since you went away, I found another job.

The difference between a main clause and a subordinate clause is often only the addition of one word at the beginning of the clause. If you add a subordinator to a main clause, you make a subordinate clause.

Example: He bought a van. (main clause)

when he bought a van (subordinate clause)

Subordinators (partial list)

Place:

where, wherever

Time:

after, before, when, whenever, as, since, until, as soon as, while, as long as

Cause or Purpose:

so that, in order that, as, because, since, that, why

Condition:

if, unless, when, whether

Contrast:

although, even though, while

Concession:

as if, though, although

Comparison:

than

Identification:

that, who, what, whom, whose, which

Some of these words function as subordinators in some sentences and as prepositions in other sentences.

The subordinator is followed by a subject and a verb.

The preposition is followed by a noun and its modifiers.

Notice that like is not a subordinator. Therefore, it is incorrect to say, “Like I said ...” The word like is only used as a preposition.

A sentence that has a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is called a complex sentence.

Exercise 6.1

In the following complex sentences, underline the subordinate clause and put parentheses around the subordinator. Begin by circling the subjects and underlining the verbs.

1. The guests left after the party was over.

2. The animals performed their tricks although the audience did not applaud.

3. When the instructor passed back our papers, I was delighted.

4. Mr. Hashimoto has been wearing a cast because he broke his leg.

5. While we were riding our bicycles, someone stole our car.

Sentences with More than One Subordinate Clause

1. When the instructor passed back our papers, I discovered that my grade was an “A.”

In this sentence, there are two subordinate clauses. Put parentheses around the two subordinators. (You should have marked when and that.)

2. If you want to travel to Europe this summer, you must save all the money that you earned while you were working as a waitress.

In this sentence, there are three subordinate clauses. Put parentheses around the three subordinators. (You should have marked if, that, and while.)

Exercise 6.2

In the following complex sentences, underline the subordinate clauses and put parentheses around the subordinators. Begin by circling the subjects and underlining the verbs.

1. After dinner, while the guests sat around the table, many of them told interesting stories about their work as we all listened attentively.

2. Although she said that she loved him, he didn’t believe her because he knew that she went out with many other men.

3. As long as you haven’t eaten your lunch yet, you might as well wait until dinner time when we will have a big meal.

4. Before I knew what was happening, the red sports car passed my car as I drove up the hill.

5. The judge said that I should go to driving school so that I would learn about the dangers of drunk driving.

6.2 Using Subordinate Clauses

Subordination, the use of subordinate clauses, gives writers another option for adding ideas to their sentences and variety to their writing. In addition, the subordinator shows the precise relationship between the subordinate clause and the main clause of the sentence.

Example:

By using subordination in sentence 2, the writer makes the time and place of the theft exact and emphasizes one idea—the theft of the wallet. Combining these two main clauses into one complex sentence also improves the style.

Most subordinate clauses can be divided into two major groups: adverb clauses and adjective clauses. Some subordinate clauses are used as noun clauses: Mario knew that he had been careless with his money. The subordinate clause is the direct object of the verb “knew.”

Adverb Clauses

In adverb clauses, the most frequently used subordinators specify place, time, cause, condition, and contrast when indicating the relationship between main and subordinate clauses:

Place:

where, wherever

Time:

after, before, when, whenever, as, since, until, as soon as, while, as long as

Cause:

because, since, as

Condition:

if, whether, unless, whatever, when

Contrast:

although, even though, while, whereas

Adjective Clauses

The adjective clause is also called a relative clause because the subordinator “relates” the rest of the subordinate clause to a word or a word group in the main clause. The subordinate clause is an adjective modifying that part of the main clause by adding information about it.

Subordinators

Examples:

The second sentence improves an awkward sentence by subordinating the first clause in sentence 1 to the second clause. The subordinate clause clarifies the situation by restricting the word people to those who helped Mario.

Exercise 6.3

Combine the following sentences into complex sentences.

A. Form a subordinate clause by placing the subordinator in parentheses in the position indicated by the caret (^).

B. Make any necessary changes in the punctuation and in the capitalization.

Example: ^ Ty Cobb, nicknamed “The Georgia Peach,” was one of the greatest of all baseball players. He was a bitter, angry man. (Use although.)

Although Ty Cobb, nicknamed “The Georgia Peach,” was one of the greatest of all baseball players, he was a bitter, angry man.

1. His lifetime batting record ^ was 4,191 hits in 24 seasons. It remained unbroken until the summer of 1985. (Use which, omit It.)

2. Cobb ^ was a multimillionaire. He gave financial help to young college students, endowed a hospital in his hometown, and gave anonymous aid to indigent ballplayers. (Use who, omit He.)

3. He remained a public idol to many. ^ Most of his fans were ignorant of his violent disposition. (Use since.)

4. Cobb welcomed a fight. ^ He was sick and old. (Use even when.)

5. Cobb threatened to use a loaded handgun. ^ He carried it with him. (Use that, omit it.)

We often combine ideas by coordinating them—that is, by linking them with the words and, but, or. Coordination works well when the parts are of equal importance, but when the ideas are not of equal importance, it’s better to subordinate one idea to another.

Using Subordination to Correct Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

Subordination gives you another way to correct comma splices and fused sentences by placing one idea in a subordinate clause and the other in a main clause.

Example:

My brother joined the merchant marine, he was eighteen. (comma splice)

Correction:

My brother joined the merchant marine when he was eighteen.

Exercise 6.4

Correct the following comma splices and fused sentences. Join the ideas in the main clauses into a complex sentence by changing one main clause to a subordinate clause. Use the subordinator in the parentheses. Punctuate the sentence correctly.

Example:

(since) Ed joined the merchant marine he has been in many foreign ports.

Correction:

Since Ed joined the merchant marine, he has been in many foreign ports.

1. (because) The coach was fired his team never won a game.

2. (when) The cat dug holes in my flower bed, I chased it away.

3. (although) They lost the first game they won the second one.

4. (while) We were riding our bicycles, someone stole our car.

5. (who, omit she) Toni is a full-time college student, she works thirty hours a week as a musician.

Punctuation

At the beginning of a sentence, use a comma after a subordinate clause.

Example: When Alex reached the parking lot, he couldn’t find his car.

Do not use a comma before a subordinate clause at the end of a sentence.

Example: Alex couldn’t find his car when he reached the parking lot.

Use commas to enclose clauses containing nonessential material. The information may add some details, but the reader could understand the main idea of the sentence if the clauses were left out.

Example: Stan, who arrived late, had to sit in the last row.

Omit the words enclosed by commas, and the sentence reads:

Stan had to sit in the last row.

The main idea of the sentence is unchanged.

Do not use commas to enclose clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Example: The people who arrived early had the best seats.

If the subordinate clause is omitted, the main idea of the sentence is lost: The people had the best seats. The clause is needed to identify the people—those who arrived early.

Exercise 6.5

Insert commas where necessary. Some sentences do not need commas added.

1. Jeanine’s dog which is a poodle digs holes in the backyard.

2. The student who will be the first speaker at graduation was in my history class last semester.

3. The Queen Mary which was once an ocean-going luxury liner is docked in Long Beach.

4. Their new stereo which was more expensive than ours has excellent fidelity.

5. The traffic light that is on the corner of Fifth and Grand is not working this morning.

6.3 Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with appropriate punctuation such as a period, but the group of words does not express a complete thought or contain a complete main clause.

Some professional writers use fragments in magazines and books. We hear sentence fragments used in conversation, as in the following example:

“Did you leave school early yesterday?”

“Yes, after my music class.”

Although the last bit of dialogue begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, it is not a complete sentence. It is a sentence fragment. When used in formal writing, fragments tend to confuse the reader.

Four Types of Sentence Fragments

It will be easier for you to correct fragments in your own writing if you learn to recognize four types of fragments.

Punctuating Subordinate Clauses as Sentences

Identifying the Error: When Jean came home.

This is the most common form of fragment. This subordinate clause is punctuated like a sentence.

Correcting the Error: When Jean came home, she turned on the stereo.

1. You can, of course, simply remove the subordinator, and you will have a complete sentence.

2. More than likely, however, the fragment will appear among the sentences of a paragraph you are writing. Therefore, you should connect the fragment to a sentence that is before or after the subordinate clause and change the punctuation.

(Error) We had just finished dinner. When Jean came home. (frag.)

(Correct) We had just finished dinner when Jean came home.

Note

When a subordinate clause is at the beginning of a sentence, place a comma after it.

Missing Subjects or Missing Verbs

Identifying the Error: 1. Swims for an hour in the pool.

2. A place to study with few interruptions.

1. Swims for an hour in the pool. Swims is a verb, but both nouns (hour and pool) are objects of the prepositions for and in. So this is a fragment because there is no subject.

2. A place to study with few interruptions. Place is a noun that could serve as a subject, and although study can be a verb, that is not the case here. In this word group, to study is a verbal. So, again, this is a fragment.

Correcting the Error:

Add a subject and/or a verb to each phrase to make a sentence.

Using Verbals Instead of Verbs or Participles without Auxiliaries

Identifying the Error: Riding our bicycles on the bike path.

In this case, the writer mistakes the verbal for a main verb and also leaves out the subject.

Correcting the Error:

1. Supply an auxiliary verb and, if necessary, a subject.

were riding our bicycles on the bike path.

2. Attach the fragment to the sentence preceding it or to the one following it.

3. Supply a verb and a completer. The verbal phrase riding our bicycles serves as the subject of the sentence.

on the bike path is good exercise.

Using Lists and Examples Hot Connected to a Subject and Verb

Identifying the Error: 1. The pattern, pinking shears, straight pins, and the material.

2. For example, my Psychology 1 final last semester.

A fragment is frequently a list or an example explaining some thought that the writer has just expressed. This kind of fragment often begins with one of the following words:

also

first

including

especially

for example

such as

except

Correcting the Error:

Although you could turn the fragment into a sentence by supplying its own subject and verb (For example, my Psychology 1 final last semester was too long.), generally, you should connect the fragment to the sentence preceding it:

1. First, assemble the items you will need to cut out your skirt; the pattern, pinking shears, straight pins, and the material.

2. Some examinations are not fair, for example, my Psychology 1 final last semester.

Exercise 6.6

Change the fragments to a sentence in the spaces provided.

1. Michelle has completed almost all the courses required by her major. Except for English 1, Psychology 2, and History 17.

2. Shelby has big plans for the sweepstakes money if he wins it. For example, traveling to many foreign countries. Including several in Africa.

3. This fabric offers a number of advantages for traveling in the summer. Such as being washable, quick-drying, wrinkle-free, and lightweight.

4. She passed the time on jury duty by knitting. And by working crossword puzzles.

5. The instructor reviewed the material to be covered in the chapter test. Especially calling our attention to the last three pages.

Exercise 6.7

Mark F for fragment and S for sentence on the lines at the right.

1. The lifeguard talking to those children is Kim’s sister.

____________

2. Handle that package with care.

____________

3. The kit twisting and turning before falling to the ground.

____________

4. Whenever he does the shopping.

____________

5. And will come home Tuesday.

____________

6. First by cutting down on unnecessary purchases.

____________

7. Turning off the light, José climbed into bed.

____________

8. The job that he wanted.

____________

9. Wondering what she would do until payday.

____________

10. Because I could not find a parking space.

____________

Chapter 7

Agreement

7.1 Subjects and Verbs

Identifying the subject and the verb is the first step in correcting subject-verb agreement errors. The verb agrees in person and number with its subject.

The subject and the verb must agree in number.

A singular subject (one person or thing) takes a singular verb.

The bird sings.

The wheel turns.

The student reads.

A plural subject (more than one person or thing) takes a plural verb.

The birds sing.

The wheels turn.

The students read.

From these examples, or from a review of verb endings in Chapter 2, it should be clear that the singular verb in the present tense ends in -s.

A subject and a verb agree if you use the correct form of the verb with the subject. Add an -s to the singular verb in the present tense when the subject is he, she, or it, or a singular noun which can be replaced by he, she, or it.

In order to be sure that the verb agrees with the subject, mentally change the noun subject into a pronoun and then select the correct form of the verb.

Examples:

1. Bill walks to work. (Mentally change the subject Bill to he.) He walks to work.

2. Sarah drives a car. (Mentally change the subject Sarah to she.) She drives a car.

3. This pencil needs to be sharpened. (Mentally change the subject pencil to it.) It needs to be sharpened.

4. The tennis players run after the balls. (Mentally change the subject tennis players to they.) They run after the balls.

Again, notice that for singular verb form (the one with he, she, or it) you add an -s to the end of the verb in sentences 1, 2, and 3. In sentence 4, -s is not added to the verb run because the subject tennis players is plural.

Exercise 7.1

Rewrite each of the following sentences, making the subjects and the verbs singular. Some sentences may require the addition of a modifier, such as a or the. Keep all verbs in the present tense.

1. Palm trees give little shade.

2. The students like the Spanish class.

3. Old photographs are faded.

4. The bus drivers collect our fares.

5. Her cars require frequent repairs.

7.2 Subjects and Verbs—Four Difficult Patterns

Words that Come Between the Subject and the Verb

Words that come between the subject and the verb do not change subject-verb agreement.

Examples:

1. The runners on our track team win a trophy every year.

The subject runners is plural, so the verb win is plural. The words on our track team that come between the subject and the verb do not affect the agreement.

2. The lions, waiting in front of their trainer, obey his commands.

The subject _____________ is plural, so the verb _____________ is plural. The words waiting in front of their trainer, that come between the subject and the verb do not affect the agreement. (The subject is lions and the verb is obey.)

3. The jacket that I bought with two pairs of trousers was a bargain.

The subject _____________ is singular, so the verb _____________ is singular. The words that I bought with two pairs of trousers do not affect the agreement. (The subject is jacket and the verb is was.)

Exercise 7.2

Circle the subject and enclose in parentheses any words that come between the subject and the verb. Then underline the correct form of the verb. The first sentence serves as an example to follow.

1. Today the (of many zoos in large cities) (is, are) not the same as in the past.

2. Until this century human visitors to the zoo, not the animals, (was, were) the first consideration.

3. An animal in one of these new zoos no longer (spends, spend) its life in a cramped cage.

4. Open-range quarters, like those in San Diego’s Wild Animal Park, (gives, give) these creatures the room to live naturally.

5. Zoo keepers, whenever possible, (works, work) to preserve and protect exotic species.

Reversed Word Order

A verb agrees with the subject even when the subject comes after the verb.

Examples:

1. Waiting for me at home were two hungry

Do not mistakenly identify “home” as the subject. The object of a preposition does not affect the form of the verb. The plural subject pets that comes after were requires a plural verb.

The way to find the subject (so you will know how to make the verb agree) is to rearrange the sentence by placing the subject before the verb.

2. There are several for his absence.

The plural subject reasons that follows the verb are calls for a plural verb.

3. Here is your for the plane trip.

The singular subject ticket that comes after the verb is requires a singular verb.

In general, when sentences begin with there, here, and where, the subject follows the verb. Rearrange the sentence to find the subject:

Exercise 7.3

Circle the subject, Underline the correct form of the verb in each sentence. The first sentence has been completed as an example.

1. There (is, are) on the seriousness of indoor air pollution.

2. Some researchers say that there (is, are) much to be learned about controlling indoor air quality.

3. Experts agree that there (is, are) greater chances of problems developing in older homes.

4. The first clue that a home may have a problem (is, are) often increased humidity.

5. Increased humidity in an insulated home (signals, signal) that the rate of air change is low and other air pollutants may be building up.

Compound Subjects Joined by and

Compound subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb.

The subjects in this sentence are ice cream and yogurt. They are joined by and, so the verb “are” is plural.

Compound Subjects Joined by or, Neither...nor or Either ...or

When subjects are joined by these connectives, the verb agrees with the subject closer to the verb.

The nearer subject, students, is plural, so the verb want is plural.

Exercise 7.4

Circle the verb that best completes each sentence.

1. A radio and a cassette player (is, are) included in the price of the car.

2. The radio and the cassette player (was, were) already installed at the factory.

3. Tomatoes and onions (is, are) good in a salami sandwich.

4. Coffee or dessert (is, are) included with the dinner.

5. The lawyer or his secretary (answer, answers) the phone.

Exercise 7.5

Circle the subject closer to the verb. Underline the correct form of the verb in each sentence.

1. Either cake or cookies (tastes, taste) good with ice cream.

2. Neither the union members nor the president of the company (seem, seems) willing to compromise.

3. Neither my brother nor my sisters (was, were) college graduates.

4. Either fresh flowers or a bottle of wine (make, makes) a welcome gift.

5. Neither the students nor the instructor (hears, hear) the fire alarm.

Exercise 7.6

Insert the form of the verb have that best completes each sentence. Choose either has or have.

1. The telephone and the front doorbell in an apartment ____________ not been working

2. The tenants and the landlord ____________ tried unsuccessfully to solve the problem.

3. The electrician and the telephone repairperson ____________ been trying to make an appointment to fix the bells.

4. Neither the landlord nor the tenants ____________ been able to hear theknock on the door.

5. Because the workers cannot get into the apartment, neither the telephone nor the front doorbell ____________ been fixed.

7.3 Subjects and Verbs—Special Problems

Subjects that Are Singular

When used as subjects, the words below take singular verbs.

Examples: Neither of the children likes squash.

Each of them has set a goal.

Everyone is here.

Somebody was knocking at the door.

Neither, each, everyone, and somebody are the subjects of these sentences.

Exercise 7.7

Underline the correct form of the verb in the parentheses.

1. No one in my class (works, work) during the summer.

2. Each of us (needs, need) a long vacation.

3. Neither of my two best friends (plans, plan) to look for a job.

4. Everybody in the class (spends, spend) the summer relaxing.

5. Nothing (seems, seem) better than that.

Subjects that Can Be Singular or Plural

When used as subjects, these six words can be singular or plural, depending upon the noun or the pronoun to which they refer.

Exercise 7.8

Underline the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. Karen collects dolls; some (is, are) quite expensive.

2. How many packages did you mail? All of them (has, have) been sent.

3. We prepared the food, but none of it (was, were) eaten.

4. I want a big dish of ice cream. (Is, Are) any left in the carton?

5. We didn’t eat the meat because some (was, were) undercooked.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns represent a collection of persons, places, things, ideas, or activities.

It is often difficult to decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural. Most of the time, use a singular verb or rewrite the sentence to make the subject clearer.

Instead of saying: “The band are tuning their instruments,” you could say, “The band members are tuning their instruments.”

Examples:

1. The number of courses offered this semester is small.

2. My favorite musical group is playing at the club all week.

3. Our school band is buying its own bus.

Nouns Ending in -s that Are Not Plural

Physics, economics, mathematics, measles, mumps, and news are considered singular even though they end in -s, and they take singular verbs.

Example: was my favorite subject in high school.

Exercise 7.9

Underline the correct verb.

1. Mumps (is, are) a contagious childhood disease.

2. Physics (was, were) a major field of interest for Albert Einstein.

3. Economics (is, are) the most difficult subject in John’s schedule.

4. The international news (sounds, sound) encouraging for a change.

5. Measles sometimes (cause, causes) meningitis.

Time, Money, and Weight

Words that specify time, money, or weight require a singular verb when they are considered as a unit even if they are plural in form.

Examples:

1. Two is really a short time.

2. Five is a modest fee for an entrance exam.

Titles

Titles of songs, plays, movies, novels, or articles require singular verbs even if the titles are plural.

Example: is both a novel and a movie.

Names of Organizations and Businesses

The names of organizations and businesses that are plural in form but singular in meaning require a singular verb. Substitute a pronoun for the proper noun to determine which verb to use.

Special Problems of Agreement

Who, That, and Which as Subjects Who, that, and which used as subjects take singular verbs if the words they refer to are singular. They take plural verbs if the words they refer to are plural.

Examples:

1. know a woman plays the tuba. (The verb plays is singular because it agrees with the subject who. Who is singular because it refers to woman, a singular noun.)

2. bark make me nervous. (The verb bark is plural because it agrees with its subject that. That is plural because it refers to dogs, a plural noun.)

Exercise 7.10

Write the noun that who, which, or that refers to on the line at the right. Then underline the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

Example: Businesses that (sell, sells) products for leisure activities compete with television.

businesses

1. The television set has become a home-entertainment center for Americans who (seeks, seek) recreation during their leisure time.

____________

2. The family of four that usually (goes, go) to a movie theater once or twice a week can now save money, watching cable television at home.

____________

3. People with videotape cassette recorders, which (plugs, plug) into the television set, schedule their favorite programs at hours most convenient for the family.

____________

4. Instead of going to a videogame arcade, many consumers play videogames that (hooks, hook) up to their own televisions.

____________

5. And, of course, commercial television, which (has, have) been keeping Americans at home for years, continues to consume one billion hours of their time each day.

____________

7.4 Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent

Pronouns are words that refer to nouns, other pronouns, or noun phrases. The antecedent (A) is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that a pronoun (P) refers to.

The first sentence in the example contains a pronoun (her) that refers to the noun antecedent (Jane).

The second sentence contains two pronouns that refer to two noun antecedents in the first sentence.

Exercise 7.11

Underline the pronouns and write the antecedents on the line at the right.

Antecedent

Andy

1. At the zoo Tanya and Rosalie fed their peanuts to the monkeys.

__________

2. The engineer completed his report.

__________

3. Have you renewed your driver’s license yet?

__________

4. I wondered if the teacher would call on me.

__________

5. John bought two sweaters because they were on sale.

__________

Words that Separate Antecedent and Pronoun

Be sure that the pronoun agrees with the antecedent and not with another noun that may be placed closer to the pronoun than the antecedent is.

Her agrees with the singular antecedent woman.

Their agrees with the plural antecedent protestors.

Exercise 7.12

Fill in the correct pronoun on the lines in these sentences. Write the word that is the antecedent on the line at the right.

Antecedent

1. The artist who sold me these paintings signed __________ name in the corner.

__________

2. Some of the visitors left __________ umbrellas here.

__________

3. Mrs. Jones, who owns several apartment buildings, has won __________ case in court.

__________

4. When the birds fly south in the winter, how do __________ know where to go?

__________

5. Several of the students have completed all of __________ assignments.

__________

Compound Antecedents

Compound antecedents usually require a plural pronoun.

Example: Betty and Ellie have their own cars.

However, if the two antecedents are joined by or, neither...nor, or either...or, the pronoun agrees with the one closer to the pronoun.

When one subject is plural and the other singular, place the plural subject second to avoid writing an awkward sentence.

Example

(awkward)

Did either the plumbers or the electrician estimate how many days he would need to complete the work?

(rewritten)

Did either the electrician or the estimate how many days they would need to complete the work?

Exercise 7.13

Fill in the correct pronoun on the lines in these sentences. Write the word or words that are the antecedents on the line at the right.

Antecedent

1. Both Ralph and George have turned in _____________ books.

__________

2. Mr. & Mrs. Asano have given us _____________ help.

__________

3. Either Martha or Angela will bring _____________ dictionary to class.

__________

4. Did either the gardener or the window cleaners send a bill for _____________ work?

__________

5. Neither Bruce nor Richard pays _____________ mother any rent.

__________

Collective Nouns

The following nouns are usually singular if you refer to the group as a unit:

In this example, you are referring to the band as a unit. [f you are unsure whether to use a singular or plural pronoun, rewrite the sentence to make it less awkward.

Exercise 7.14

Write its or their on the line in each of the following sentences.

1. The committee made __________ recommendation yesterday.

2. The senior class will vote for __________ officers tomorrow.

3. Will the jury ever reach __________ decision on this case?

4. The audience sat down quietly in __________ seats.

5. Last year the company that my father works for gave __________ employees a bonus in December.

Singular Words

The words below are singular. Pronouns that refer to these words should also be singular.

The use of their with words like everyone and everybody is gaining acceptance. Many people would agree that it is acceptable to write:

Has everyone finished their test?

When writing assignments for academic purposes, try rewriting the sentence to leave out the pronoun.

Rewrite: Has everyone finished the test?

This solution also avoids the problem of sexist language and the awkward alternative of writing:

Has everyone finished his or her test?

Exercise 7.15

Complete the following sentences with appropriate pronouns or rewrite the sentences to avoid problems of awkwardness.

1. Someone left ____________ books on that desk.

2. Has anyone brought ____________ camera?

3. Each of the girls has paid ____________ dues to the club treasurer.

4. Nobody has received ____________ grades in the mail yet.

5. Everyone must show ____________ employee badge to the guard at the gate.

Note: The repeated use of his/her in a paragraph or an essay can become monotonous or sound forced. You usually can avoid this problem by using a plural noun antecedent and substituting their or by using a noun marker (a, an, or the).

Agreement of Who, Whom, Which, and That with Antecedents

Who, whom, which, and that should agree not only in gender, person, and number with their antecedents, but they should also agree with them in a special way. Who and whom refer only to people.

Which refers only to animals or to non-human things.

That may refer to animals or things. The usual rule has been not to use that to refer to people. However, the use of the word that to refer to people is gaining wider acceptance, especially in conversation. When you are writing formal English, however, it is a good idea to use who and whom in reference to people.

Correct:

1. The car that I bought six months ago is falling apart.

Correct:

2. The two dogs that belong to my neighbor like to dig.

Informal:

3. He doesn’t like people that don’t agree with him.

Formal:

4. He has no patience with people who do not share his views.

Exercise 7.16

Underline the pronoun that best completes each sentence.

1. The people (who, that) live on my street belong to a neighborhood-watch group.

2. I joined the group (who, that) was formed last year.

3. The neighborhood is watched by the people (who, that) live there.

4. There are signs in the windows of the members’ houses (who, that) warn criminals to stay away.

5. I like living in a neighborhood (who, that) is safe.

If you have difficulty knowing whether to use who or whom to introduce a subordinate clause, study the following explanations.

Use who to introduce a subordinate clause when it is the subject of the verb in that clause.

Example: Mark did not know who had given the money to Alan.

(Who is the subject of the verb had given.)

Use whom to introduce a subordinate clause when it is the object of a verb or a preposition in that clause.

Example: Mark did now know whom Alan had given the money to.

(Whom is the object of the preposition to.)

Exercise 7.17

Choose the correct word to complete the following sentences.

1. Anthony, surrounded by the opponent’s linemen, did not know (who, whom) was running down the field.

2. Anthony depended on the signals from the coach to tell him (who, whom) to throw the ball to.

3. The coach, (who, whom) had a clear view of the whole field from the sideline, signaled the numbers of the receiver to Anthony.

4. Anthony just threw the ball with all his might, hoping that it would reach the person for (who, whom) it was intended.

5. The fans in the crowd roared when they saw the receiver, (who, whom) was waiting in the end zone, catch the ball.

7.5 Unclear Pronoun Reference

You will confuse your reader if there are two or more nouns the pronoun can refer to or if there is no antecedent at all for the pronoun. Learn to provide one specific antecedent for each pronoun by studying this section.

More than One Possible Antecedent

Example: Pete told Max that he was becoming bald.

There are two possible antecedents. He could refer to either Pete or Max.

Revised: Pete said to Max, “I’m getting bald.”
Pete told Max that Max was getting bald.

Example: Carol dropped the glass on the plate and broke it.

The antecedent is not clear. Did the glass break? Or was it the plate?

Revised: When Carol dropped the glass on the plate, the glass broke.
The plate broke when Carol dropped a glass on it.

Example: My sister gave a speech at her graduation ceremony. This pleased my family.

This does not clearly refer to a single noun. Either ceremony or speech could be the noun antecedent.

Revised: The speech that my sister gave at her graduation ceremony pleased my family.

No Specific Antecedent

Example: I liked camp because they were so friendly.

The pronoun they cannot refer to the singular noun camp. Substitute a specific noun for the pronoun they.

Revised: I liked camp because the counselors were so friendly.

Example: Her husband is a football coach, but she thinks it is boring.

It surely cannot refer to husband or football coach. Substitute a specific noun for the pronoun it.

Revised: Her husband is a football coach, but she thinks football is boring.

Exercise 7.18

The antecedents of the underlined pronouns in these sentences are unclean Give the pronouns specific antecedents or replace the pronouns with nouns. If necessary, rewrite the sentence.

1. Maria told Tess that she had lost her pen.

2. There are so many automobile accidents because they are so careless.

3. Mr. Bronowski is a great surgeon. This is a rewarding profession.

4. Before taking a test, Roberto studies and gets a good night’s sleep, which is important.

5. The graduates marched solemnly down the aisle to receive their diplomas. It was so inspiring.

Chapter 8

Commas

8.1 Coordinating Connectives Between Main Clauses; Items in a Series; Introductory Phrases and Clauses

Many writers are confused about when to use commas. Study and memorize the ten rules discussed in this chapter, and you will not be confused about the use of commas.

1. Use a Comma Between Two Main Clauses Connected by a Coordinating Connective

Place a comma before a coordinating connective (and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet) when it joins two main clauses.

Example: The dropped the fly ball, and the on third base scored.

Unnecessary Commas The following sentence does not have a comma before the connective. In this sentence, and connects the two parts of a compound verb, not two main clauses.

Example: The outfielder dropped the ball and committed an error.

Exercise 8.1

Insert commas where necessary.

1. Andrew did not want to wear his raincoat to school yesterday nor did he want to carry an umbrella.

2. I have seen that movie star before yet I cannot remember her name.

3. Louis and Gerald tried out for the basketball team and both of them were chosen.

4. Brett and Lula were married on Friday morning but they did not leave for Hawaii until Saturday.

5. Athletes must train hard and watch their diet every day or they will not be able to compete.

Exercise 8.2

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line at the right.

1. James will have to repair his car, or take the bus to work.

_________

2. Rita has no patience, for waiting in line.

_________

3. The fire started in the garage, and spread rapidly to the house.

_________

4. Angela sometimes drinks root beer, but prefers cola.

_________

5. Mr. Washington frequently sends letters to the newspaper, but the editor has never printed one.

_________

2. Use Commas to Separate Items in a Series

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. The items may be single words, phrases, or clauses. A comma before the last item is optional if there are exactly three items in the series. In the following examples, you may omit the comma before and in sentences 2 and 3 if you wish.

Examples:

1. Marty is taking courses in economics, typing, accounting, and statistics this semester. (words)

2. I went to the bank, did some shopping, and returned home by eleven. (phrases)

3. Leroy cut the grass, Cathy pulled the weeds in the flower beds, and Pat trimmed the hedges. (main clauses)

Unnecessary Commas No commas are necessary in the following sentence because there are only two items in the series.

Example: Tennis and swimming are her favorite sports.

Exercise 8.3

Insert commas where necessary.

1. Last semester Evelyn took four classes at college worked twenty hours a week and sang in the church choir on weekends.

2. My favorite breakfast cereal contains the following ingredients: malt barley oats honey and raisins.

3. He caught the pass ran along the sideline for twenty yards into the end zone but failed to score because he had stepped out of bounds on the two-yard line.

4. The students were told to bring their workbooks dictionaries lined paper and pens to every class meeting.

5. The recipe listed the following ingredients: sugar butter flour cocoa walnuts milk and peanut butter.

Exercise 8.4

If the circled comma is necessary, write Yes on the line at the right. If the circled comma is unnecessary, write No on the line at the right.

1. In high school Jason began to worry about going to college choosing a career and finding a high-paying job.

_________

2. The chili we ordered for lunch was hot and spicy.

_________

3. Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique border South Africa on the east, north and west.

_________

4. Dean’s favorite authors used to be Ray Bradbury and Robert Heinlein.

_________

5. We have expanded our network to include Wisconsin Indiana, and Connecticut.

_________

3. Use a Comma After Introductory Words and Phrases

At the beginning of a sentence, use a comma after a long phrase.

Examples:

1. By the end of the second week of school, Ken was counting the weeks until Thanksgiving weekend.

2. Taking out his new camera, Ken remembered that he had forgotten to buy film.

The comma after a single introductory word or an introductory short phrase is optional. Although many writers use the comma after these expressions, others do not.

Examples:

1. We waited for forty minutes in the rain for the bus. Finally, it arrived, but every seat was taken.

2. When I come home from work every evening, I eat dinner, take a shower, and do my homework. Last of all, I eat a snack and watch a television program before I go to bed.

3. After work  four of us went bowling.

4. In that heat  no one could sleep comfortably.

If there is any question about the meaning of the sentence, use a comma after a single word or a short phrase of introduction.

Inside, the theater was cool and dark.

While riding, the men had difficulty staying awake.

Try reading these two sentences without commas, and you will see why the comma in each case is essential to understanding the meaning.

Exercise 8.5

Insert commas where necessary. Some sentences do not need commas added.

1. Within two or three months the parking lot will be less crowded.

2. After a short pause the speaker answered the questions from the audience.

3. Best of all the food is always served hot.

4. In many tropical countries the natives take a siesta in the middle of the day.

5. John has been commuting 25 miles a day to school. Fortunately he found an apartment for rent near the college yesterday.

Exercise 8.6

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line at the right.

1. During the emergency the water was turned off for six hours.

_________

2. While working at the doughnut shop Kathy lost ten pounds.

_________

3. Despite many years of lecturing, writing, composing, and performing, the noted pianist had no intention of retiring.

_________

4. Jan spent almost an hour shopping for groceries today. Of course, she forgot to buy the one item she needed most.

_________

5. Before making the long drive to Seattle we bought two new tires for the car.

_________

4. Use a Comma After Introductory Subordinate Clauses

Use a comma after a subordinate clause at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: When you move to your new office, send us your address.

Unnecessary Commas Do not use a comma before a subordinate clause at the end of a sentence.

Examples:

1. Jay sold his old typewriter when he bought a new one.

2. Sue had to go to the market because she forgot to buy milk.

Exercise 8.7

Insert commas where they are needed. Some sentences do not need commas added.

1. Although Jo Ellen had always known the truth about Harry she still loved him.

2. Before you can understand calculus you must understand algebra and trigonometry.

3. If the rain doesn’t stop soon the rivers will overflow their banks.

4. By the time you are ready to take the test you will be able to answer all of the questions correctly.

5. The thick salmon steak was delicious even though it was a little overcooked.

Exercise 8.8

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. Wendell is moving, because the landlord raised the rent.

_________

2. After breakfast Victor and Frances drove to a nearby resort where they purchased ski-lift tickets.

_________

3. If you need a dictionary and a notebook for class, you can buy them at the student bookstore.

_________

4. Nancy is a person, who enjoys giving parties.

_________

5. Richard decided to quit smoking as soon as the Christmas holidays were over.

_________

8.2 Adjectives Before a Noun; Words that Interrupt; Direct Address

5. Use Commas to Separate Adjectives Before a Noun

Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that modify the same noun if they are not linked by a coordinating connective. You can use two tests to tell whether or not to put a comma between modifiers before a noun.

1. Use a comma if and can be used to connect the adjectives.

2. Use a comma if you can reverse the order of the adjectives.

Example: Bob was the most aggressive, skillful player on the court.

Use a comma because you could say:

1. Bob was the most aggressive and skillful player on the court.

or

2. Bob was the most skillful, aggressive player on the court.

Unnecessary Commas Do not put a comma between adjectives if and cannot be placed between them or if you cannot reverse their order.

Example: He was the most aggressive, skillful  basketball player on the court.

1. You would not write skillful and basketball player.

2. You cannot reverse the words—basketball skillful player.

Therefore, do not put a comma between skillful and basketball.

The adjectives placed before basketball player modify both words. Do not put a comma between the final modifier and the noun.

Exercise 8.9

Insert commas as needed in the following sentences.

1. The raindrops fell into the clear blue deep water of the pool.

2. Shana left her discarded smelly clothes scattered around her large sunlit bedroom.

3. The acrobat entertained the huge enthusiastic audience by his skillful graceful performance.

4. In the early morning the joggers run effortlessly along the deserted shell-strewn beach.

5. Marge’s pink sunburnt skin looked painful to me.

Exercise 8.10

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. The young woman had a round tanned pleasant face.

_________

2. Calvin found it especially hard to get up on cold, rainy, Monday mornings.

_________

3. Mrs. Vasquez bought four ripe, Bartlett pears for dessert.

_________

4. We spent several hours in the noisy, crowded amusement park.

_________

5. Hank bought a yellow stocking cap to wear with his green, nylon, ski, parka.

_________

6. Use Commas to Enclose Words that Interrupt

Use commas on both sides of a word (or a group of words) that interrupts the flow of thought in a sentence.

Examples:

1. Airline pilots, by the way, are often cautious automobile drivers.

2. The guests, it seems, are enjoying the party.

3. Several changes in the enrollment procedure, however, are planned for the coming semester.

Do not use just one comma; enclose the interrupting word or words between two commas.

Unnecessary Commas Do not use commas to enclose prepositional phrases that do not interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence.

Examples:

1. A car with a flat tire was parked near the exit ramp of the freeway.

2. The dwarf lemon tree grew rapidly and in no time at all produced fruit.

3. Lunch was served immediately after the meeting.

These sentences do not require any commas.

Exercise 8.11

Insert commas where necessary.

1. We hope therefore that you will send our refund soon.

2. Karen’s parents as a rule drive her to school every day.

3. The jury as a result took four days to arrive at the verdict.

4. The kitchen in fact has not been cleaned since last week.

5. My opinion in the long run is based on the facts as I understand them.

Exercise 8.12

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. Many of our present tax laws, you must admit, should be changed.

_________

2. Jerome has been living in Des Moines, with his parents for nineteen years.

_________

3. There are after all, other ways of dealing with the disposal problem.

_________

4. Burt jumped out of the chair and, in his excitement knocked over his cup of coffee.

_________

5. An exercise program, for example could include a thirty-minute walk after dinner.

_________

7. Use Commas to Set Off Words in Direct Address

Use commas to set off the names and titles of people spoken to directly.

Examples:

1. “Pat, will you please call Dr. Hodge for me?” Paul said.

2. “I called you, Dr. Hodge, to ask for some information, said Pat.

3. “How often should Paul take the medicine, Doctor?” asked Pat.

These three examples show words in direct address at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of sentences. Notice the use of commas.

Exercise 8.13

Insert commas where necessary.

1. I don’t entirely agree Jim with your position.

2. Play it again Sam.

3. Ladies and gentlemen of the jury you have heard the evidence.

4. Ella tell me that you love me.

5. I hope Paulette that you will practice your lesson.

Exercise 8.14

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. A vote for me my fellow Americans is a vote for good government.

_________

2. Paul, do you have a job for the summer?

_________

3. It is a pleasure to award first prize to you Mrs. Odim.

_________

4. Your suggestion, sir is the best one we have received.

_________

5. We were delighted, Marvelle, to hear about your promotion.

_________

8.3 Nonessential Words, Phrases, and Clauses; Direct Quotations; Dates, Geographical Names, and Addresses

8. Use Commas to Set Off Nonessential Words, Phrases, and Clauses

Use commas to enclose words, phrases, and clauses containing nonessential material. The information in these words may add some details, but the reader could understand the main idea of the sentence if they were left out.

Examples:

1. Marcie Evan, who is our pitcher, will be a sportscaster next fall.

2. Cannery Row, a novel by John Steinbeck, has been made into a movie.

Omit the words enclosed by commas, and the sentences above read:

1. Marcie Evan will be a sportscaster next fall.

2. Cannery Row has been made into a movie.

As you can see, the main ideas of both sentences are unchanged by omitting the nonessential words. In general, if the name or title is given first, the noun appositive or adjective clause that follows is placed within commas.

Unnecessary Commas Do not use commas to enclose words, phrases, and clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Example: Will the person who parked in the loading zone move his car?

If the subordinate clause who parked in the loading zone is omitted, the main idea of the sentence is lost. You are left with Will the person move his car? In fact, the person cannot be identified; you do not know who should move his car.

Example: The novel Cannery Row has been made into a movie.

In this sentence the title is necessary to identify the book. Therefore, you do not use commas.

In the two examples given, you would not enclose the underlined words by commas because they contain material essential to the meaning of the sentences.

Exercise 8.15

Insert commas where necessary.

1. My friend Carla Caraway went to New York to get a job as a dancer.

2. A young woman alone in a strange city must learn how to take care of herself.

3. She auditioned for Judith Jamison the famous choreographer of the Alvin Ailey company.

4. Carla breathless and exhausted waited after the audition to hear the choreographer’s opinion.

5. Carla joined the Ailey company one of the best dance companies in the world.

Exercise 8.16

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. Dr. Eleanor Fisher, a professor of biochemistry, will be a guest speaker on campus Tuesday noon.

_________

2. Mike unable to remember the answer, skipped the second question and went on to the third.

_________

3. The man jogging around the track was listening to a transistor radio.

_________

4. Farm Fresh the supermarket chain that advertises on TV stays open until 1 a.m.

_________

5. Itzhak Perlman, a renowned violinist performed with the New York Philharmonic last night.

_________

Exercise 8.17

Insert commas where required to set off nonessential words, phrases, and clauses.

1. A talented American contralto Marian Anderson who had sung at the White House was barred from singing in Constitution Hall in Washington.

2. Instead Ms. Anderson sang at the Lincoln Memorial before 75,000 people who had gathered in support of her.

3. Three Aaron Copland ballets drawing upon American themes are Billy the Kid, Rodeo, and Appalachian Spring.

4. Copland wrote Appalachian Spring for Martha Graham choreographer and dancer.

5. Ernest Hemingway an American author began his first job as a newspaper reporter at the age of eighteen.

9. Use Commas to Set Off Direct Quotations

Use commas to set off direct quotations from the rest of the sentence.

Examples:

1. “Perhaps,” my brother said to me, “you should study once in a while.”

2. She asked, “Won’t anybody help me?”

3. “I don’t want to watch television tonight,” Jan said.

4. “I’ll be back in an hour,” Jim answered, “so don’t. leave without me.”

In sentence 3, although “I don’t want to watch television tonight,” is a main clause, do not use a period until the end of the complete statement.

Note that commas are placed inside the quotation marks.

Exercise 8.18

Insert commas where necessary.

1. “I can never do these homework assignments” Gary complained.

2. “Well” said his mother “you haven’t even tried.”

3. “I never learn anything in that class” he said “so what’s the point?”

4. “Besides” he said to her “I have a date tonight.”

5. “Gary, you should do your assignment before you go out” his mother advised.

10. Use Commas in Dates, Geographical Names, and Addresses

Use commas after every item in dates, geographical names, and addresses as shown in the following examples:

Dates: Maria drove to school on Saturday, September 5, 1989.

Geographical names: Miami, Florida, is the site of the Orange Bowl.

Addresses: James’s address is 2208 N. McKnight Road, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103. (The zip code is not separated by a comma from the name of the state.)

Unnecessary Commas Commas may be omitted when the day of the month is not given or when the day of the month precedes the month.

Examples: Maria drove to school in September 1989. Maria drove to school on Saturday, 5 September 1989.

Exercise 8.19

Insert commas where necessary.

1. George will move to Las Vegas Nevada in January.

2. His address has been The Stanford Arms Hotel Apt. 10 536 W. 18th Street Rittman Indiana 46206 for the last six years.

3. We will forward his mail to his new address: The Pyramid Hotel Las Vegas Nevada 89501.

4. The Battle of Gettysburg was fought on July 4 1863.

5. The annual rodeo in Palmdale California features a bull-riding contest.

Exercise 8.20

If the sentence is punctuated correctly, write Yes on the line at the right. If the sentence is incorrectly punctuated, write No on the line.

1. Send Lynn’s mail in care of Mrs. R. B. Singer, 1532 Stone Canyon Drive Santa Maria Arizona 85321 starting Friday July 28, 1991.

_________

2. Alfred Holmes was born on February 12, 1950, in Englewood, New Jersey, according to the records.

_________

3. Circle March 15 on your calendar as an important day.

_________

4. Sean and Kathleen left Sunday July 16 for Ireland.

_________

5. Return this form to the Department of Motor Vehicles, 128 S. Cadillac Ave., Newbury, Montana 59711, by Monday, July 3, 1991, to avoid paying a penalty.

_________

Chapter 9

Punctuation and Capitalization

When you speak, you use pauses, gestures, and changes in the pitch of your voice to signal the beginnings and endings of units of thought. When you read, marks of punctuation provided by the writer guide your understanding of the writer’s ideas. When you write, you also must provide guideposts for your readers to help them understand what you mean.

9.1 Period, Question Mark, and Exclamation Point

Period (.)

1. Use a period at the end of a sentence to separate it from the next one.

Example: We made plans for a European trip. We studied maps and travel books.

2. Use a period after an abbreviation.

Examples:

Mr. Jones

etc.

Prof. Anderson

p.m.

Dr. Brown

B.A.

3. Use a period after initials.

Examples:

K. C. Jones

Howard C. Smith

4. It is not necessary to use a period in abbreviations that are composed of the first letter of two or more words.

Examples:

UCLA

NAACP

USA

NASA

CIA

FBI

Question Mark (?)

Use a question mark at the end of a direct question.

Example: Do you really want to go to Europe?

Do not use a question mark after an indirect question, a sentence in which the question is part of the statement.

Example: We asked ourselves if we really wanted to go to Europe.

Exclamation Point (!)

Use an exclamation point after words, phrases, or clauses that express shock or excitement.

Examples: I’m falling!

Help!

Do not overuse the exclamation point. Save it for genuine expressions of emotion.

Exercise 9.1

Add periods, question marks, or exclamation points to the following sentences.

1. When did you last study punctuation

2. Mr Newman is a famous actor

3. Help Fire

4. I would be living in New York if I could afford an apartment on E 68th Street

5. He earned his B A degree from N Y U

6. Hal wondered what was wrong with him

7. What is wrong with Hal

8. Hooray We’ve won the game

9. When we were young, we never questioned why we were poor

10. How are you today

9.2 Semicolon and Colon

Semicolon (;)

1. The semicolon is used as a connector.

A. The semicolon joins two main clauses with closely related ideas to form a compound sentence.

Example: Please give me your history assignment; I was absent from class yesterday.

B. The semicolon is used before adverbial connectives like however, nevertheless, consequently, therefore, and then to join two main clauses.

Example: The crew was cold and hungry; nevertheless, they worked until dark.

2. The semicolon is used as a separator. The semicolon is used between words or word groups in a series if the items in the series contain one or more commas.

Example: Other points of interest in Europe were the Louvre, Paris; the Colosseum, Rome; and the British Museum, London.

Colon (:)

1. The colon is used at the end of a main clause to introduce a list.

Example: We have always wanted to visit four other countries: Poland, Hungary, Austria, and Switzerland.

2. The colon often comes after words like the following or as follows.

Example: In Austria we would visit the following cities: Vienna, Salzburg, and Innsbruck.

No colon is used between a verb and the objects or completers that follow it.

A colon after the verb carries would separate the verb from its objects, and a colon after the verb were would separate the verb from its completers. Remember that a complete sentence must come before the colon.

3. The colon is used after a salutation in a business letter.

Example: Dear Mr. Wilkins:

Please consider me for the position of junior accountant in your firm.

4. The colon separates the hours and minutes when you are writing the time.

Example: Our class meets daily at 10:30 a.m.

Do not use a colon if no minutes are given.

Example: Our class meets daily at 10 a.m.

Exercise 9.2

Insert semicolons or colons where needed in the following sentences.

1. The telephone call brought David the news he had been waiting for he had been offered a job in Dallas.

2. First, Brett turned on the television then he poured himself a drink.

3. When baking a carrot cake, one should prepare the following ingredients flour, baking soda, oil, eggs, and carrots.

4. Terri has owned three cars an ’80 Buick, an ’84 Chevy, and an ’88 Ford.

5. Three women who won prizes at the California State Fair were Alice Mills, Sacramento Betty Ford, Palm Springs and Jane Kelly, Modesto.

6. The students had planned to study in the law library however, it was closed when they arrived.

7. The charter flight was scheduled to leave at 3 45 p.m. nevertheless, at 4 p.m. the tourists were still checking in their baggage.

8. The menu lists the following entrees lasagna, fettuccini, and ravioli.

9. It has not rained much this winter therefore, we may have a shortage of water.

10. Come to our house after the movie we will have coffee in the comfort of our home.

9.3 Quotation Marks

Direct Quotations

Quotation marks are used primarily in direct quotations. Put quotation marks around the exact words of the speaker.

Examples:

1. Jimmy called, “Anyone for tennis?”

2. “I would rather play golf,” replied Lee.

Note the punctuation for direct quotations:

Use a comma before the direct quotation.

Use quotation marks around the speaker’s exact words.

Use a capital letter for the first word of the direct quotation.

Split Quotations

Examples:

1. “But, Linda,” he said, “you and Cheryl have never ridden on the Colossus.”

2. “You go ahead and ride on it,” she answered. “We’ll stay here and watch you.

Note the punctuation for split quotations:

In 1, the word you begins with a small letter because the words on either side of he said are the two parts of a single sentence.

In 2, there are two sentences. The first one begins with You and ends with she answered. Therefore, the W of We’ll is capitalized as the first word of the second sentence.

End Punctuation in Quotations

Periods and commas are always placed inside quotation marks.

Examples:

1. “I would rather play golf,” replied Lee.

2. “We’ll stay here and watch you.”

Question marks and exclamation points are placed outside quotation marks except when the quotation itself is a question or an exclamation.

Example: Did Jimmy say, “I want to play tennis”?

Exceptions:

1. Jimmy called, “Anyone for tennis?” (The quotation is a question.)

2. The crowd shouted, “Touchdown! Touchdown!” (The quotation is an exclamation.)

Quotations within Quotations

Single quotation marks are used to enclose quoted material within a direct quotation.

Example: He never tires of saying, “Remember Patrick Henry’s words: ‘Give me liberty or give me death.’”

Unnecessary Quotation Marks Do not enclose an indirect quotation in quotation marks. It is a report in different words of what a speaker or writer said. The word “that” usually indicates the following words are an indirect quotation.

Examples:

1. Joan said, “This assignment is Greek to me” (direct quotation)
Joan said that the assignment was Greek to her. (Indirect quotation, do not use quotation marks.)

2. Marcus swore, “I’ll never eat at Joe’s pizza Palace again.” (direct quotation)
Marcus swore that he would never eat at Joe’s Pizza Palace again. (Indirect quotation, do not use quotation marks.)

The Use of Quotation Marks and Underlining in Titles

A. Use quotation marks for short works.

1. title of article

2. title of chapter

3. title of short story

4. title of song

5. title of poem

B. In handwritten or typed work, underline the words that would be italicized in printed material.

1. title of book

2. title of magazine

3. title of newspaper

4. title of play, movie, work of art

5. title of record album, compact disc, or video

6. foreign words

7. words used as words

C. Never use quotation marks around the title of your own composition.

Examples:

1. Have you read the article “Getting the Airmail off the Ground” in the May issue of Smithsonian?

2. We decided to rent Gone with the Wind and Fantasia to watch at home.

3. The English instructor assigned two stories for us to read: “A Perfect Day for Bananafish” and “Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut” in the paperback Nine Stories by J.D. Salinger.

4. I bought two CDs at the record store: Maiden Voyage by Herbie Hancock and Miles Ahead by Miles Davis.

5. “Guiding Children’s Book Selection,” a chapter in Children & Books, contains standards for evaluating books.

6. The word freedom is difficult to define.

Exercise 9.3

Use quotation marks or underline as needed in the following sentences.

1. Few people who have read Shirley Jackson’s The Lottery or William Faulkner’s A Rose for Emily can forget those short stories.

2. Have you seen The Tempest at the Old Globe Theater yet? he asked.

3. Ben said that he had just returned the book Beloved, by Toni Morrison, to the library.

4. The manager ran out of the store and shouted, Stop that shoplifter!

5. Can you believe that Mr. Marquez said, Read the next four chapters by tomorrow?

6. The article A Private Solution to a Public Problem in this morning’s Times offers one more proposal to ease the state’s financial crisis.

7. When Rose was three years old, her favorite poem was The Owl and the Pussycat.

8. Cheers, Roseanne, and L.A. Law are three television shows that Ron always watches.

9. Poetry and advertising have much in common, according to a chapter entitled Poetry and Advertising in the book, Language in Thought and Action.

10. Lauren obtained material for her speech from the article, College Tuition, in The Atlantic magazine.

9.4 Hyphen and Dash

Hyphen (-)

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words that serve as a single adjective describing a noun.

Example: My son and I had a heart-to-heart talk.

2. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line of writing or typing. If you are unsure about the correct syllable division, consult a dictionary.

Example: Hazel and Hugh discussed their son’s problems together.

Never divide a word of one syllable at the end of a line. Whenever possible, avoid dividing a word.

3. Use a hyphen with fractions, compound nouns, and compound numbers.

Example: thirty-five         forty-ninth         father-in-law
self-improvement      one-half

Exercise 9.4

Insert hyphens where they are needed in the following sentences.

1. A fifty year old man has won the marathon race.

2. Unfamiliar with the city, Steven made a left hand turn into a one way street.

3. I have all my wool sweaters dry cleaned.

4. The sharp eyed detective noticed the run down heels of the sus pect.

5. My sister in law Renata bought a second hand typewriter for seventy two dollars.

6. Margot works as a free lance writer; she edits self help books.

7. Two thirds of the Senate voted for the proposed insurance bill cov ering high risk drivers.

8. The snipers were hiding in the bullet scarred high rise building.

9. As the mayor elect, Mr. Barr was called on to lecture the upper class students of the high school on self reliance.

10. Dennis half heartedly tried self hypnosis to stop smoking.

Dash (—)

A dash signals an interruption in the sentence. Use dashes before and after interrupters.

Examples:

1. Some—but not all—of the problems were difficult.

2. I had volunteered to work this summer—but why bother about that now?

Note: On a typewriter, strike the hyphen key twice to form the dash. Do not overuse the dash. It should not be used as a substitute for commas, semicolons, or colons just because you are unsure about which to use.

9.5 Capital Letters

Always capitalize:

1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of a line of poetry.

He ran down the street.

2. The first word of a direct quotation.

He said, “The restaurant is on fire!”

3. The name of a person.

Albert Einstein

4. The personal pronoun I.

I, I’m

5. The names of continents, countries, nationalities, states, cities, bodies of water, places, and streets.

Asia, Greece, American, California, Dallas, Pacific Ocean, Griffith Park, Main Street

6. The names of the days of the week, months, holidays (but not the seasons).

Sunday, May, Mother’s Day, Labor Day

7. The names of commercial products (but not the type of product).

Dentyne gum, Pillsbury flour, Ivory soap

8. The names of companies, organizations, government agencies and offices.

General Motors Co., Democratic Party, Department of Motor Vehicles, Federal Bureau of Investigation

9. The titles of persons, books, magazines, newspapers, articles, stories, poems, films, television shows, songs, papers that you write.
Note: Do not capitalize small words like the, in, or a within titles.

Mr., Dr., Reverend, President Lincoln, “Dream Deferred,” The Jeffersons

10. The names of schools, colleges, and universities, academic departments, degrees, and specific courses.

West Los Angeles College, Department of English, Associate of Arts, History 101

Exercise 9.5

Capitalize where necessary.

1. anh nguyen has become an american citizen.

2. i’m passing english 1, but i’m failing history 21.

3. when mary went to new york, she visited the metropolitan museum of art.

4. i have already seen the play, phantom of the opera.

5. sue’s favorite lunch consists of ritz crackers, kraft cheese, and coca-cola.

6. when darlene went to sears, she bought wamsutta sheets for her new water bed.

7. are you going to watch the sugar bowl game on new year’s day?

8. in the spring i usually spend Saturdays working in my garden.

9. yellowstone national park is the largest national park in the united states.

10. my instructor told me to read a novel by hemingway this weekend, but i watched television.

Chapter 10

Usage

Words that sound alike or look alike can cause many problems in spelling. Study the following words and refer to these pages when you are writing your paragraphs.

10.1 A / An / And

1. Use a before words beginning with consonants or consonant sounds.

Examples: a chair, a boy, a tree, a picture, a youth

2. Use an before words beginning with vowels (a, e, i, o u) or a silent h.

Examples: an apple, an egg, an idea, an honor, an opal

3. And connects words, phrases, and clauses. It is a coordinating connective.

Examples: Don and I are going to the concert.

10.2 Accept / Except

1. Accept is a verb. It means to receive gladly, to agree to.

Example: I accept your invitation with pleasure.

2. Except is a preposition. It means excluding, but.

Example: Everyone was here except Jerry.

Exercise 10.1

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Please ________________ my apology.

2. Marilyn cleaned every room in the house ______________ the bathroom.

10.3 Advice / Advise

1. Advice is a noun. It means an opinion, from one not immediately concerned, about what could or should be done about a problem.

Example: Sally loves to give advice to everyone.

2. Advise is a verb. It means to offer advice; to counsel. Note: Pronounce the s like a z.

Example: My counselor advised me to petition for graduation soon.

Exercise 10.2

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Can the professor _____________ me what courses to take next semester?

2. Will you follow his _____________ ?

10.4 Affect / Effect

1. Affect is usually used as a verb. It means to have an influence on; to touch or move the emotions of someone.

Example: We have learned that using drugs affects our health.

2. Effect is usually used as a noun. It means the final result; the outcome.

Example: The effect of a drug on the nervous system is quickly observed.

Exercise 10.3

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. The recent cold weather ___________ the fruit crop.

2. The ___________ of the budget cut was felt by all the employees.

10.5 Already / All Ready

1. Already is an adverb. It means by this time; before; previously.

Example: I have already eaten lunch, thank you.

2. All ready is an adjective. It is used to express complete readiness.

Example: The tourists were all ready to board the plane.

Exercise 10.4

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Everyone is _______________ to go to the beach.

2. The students had _____________ studied for the test.

10.6 Dessert / Desert

1. Dessert is a noun. It means the last course of a lunch or a dinner.

Example: My favorite dessert is apple pie.

2. Desert is used as a noun to mean barren land, an area of little rainfall.

Example: There is a large desert in Africa.

3. Desert is used as a verb to mean to leave or abandon.

Example: The soldier deserted his post during the battle.

Exercise 10.5

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Maria prepared fried bananas for ___________________ .

2. Many flowers bloom in the ________________ in the spring.

3. James’s father ________________ his family.

10.7 Its / It’s

1. Its is the possessive form of the pronoun it.

Example: The cat licked its fur.

2. It’s is the contraction of it is or it has.

Example: It’s time to eat.

Many writers are tempted to add ’s to the pronoun it to form the possessive. To avoid this error, read it’s as it is whenever you see it to ensure that you are using the contraction of it is rather than the possessive of it, which should always be its.

Exercise 10.6

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. __________ been raining all day.

2. The bear stuck __________ paw into the beehive.

10.8 Know / No

1. Know is a verb. It means to understand; to be familiar with; to be certain of.

Example: Ed knows where Angie lives.

2. No is a negative. It means not any; not one.

Example: You have no reason to stay in bed today.

Exercise 10.7

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Some professors ______________ their students well.

2. Lisa has _______________ more money in her wallet.

10.9 Lead / Led

1. Lead is a noun. It is pronounced like led. It means a soft, bluish white element used in pencils. If it is used as a verb, it is pronounced “leed.” It means to show the way by going in advance; to conduct.

Examples: Lead is a dense metal.

The conductor will lead the orchestra.

2. Led is the past tense and past participle of the verb lead.

Example: The guide led us out of the forest.

Exercise 10.8

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Early alchemists tried to make gold out of _________________.

2. The sergeant ____________ his men into battle.

10.10 Loose / Lose

1. Loose is an adjective. It means not tight fitting; too large; not fastened.

Example: The string on that package is too loose.

2. Lose is a verb. Pronounce the s like a z. It means to misplace; to fail to win.

Example: I hope my horse won’t lose the race.

Exercise 10.9

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. I will ____________ the key if I don’t buy a new key ring.

2. Linda likes to wear ___________ slippers on her feet.

10.11 Past / Passed

1. Past is a noun. It means the time before the present. It can be used as an adjective to describe that which has already occurred.

Example: Try not to think about the past.

2. Passed is the past tense and past participle form of the verb pass. It means succeeded in, handed in, or went by.

Example: Andrea waved and smiled as she passed by us. Larry passed in his term paper on time.

Exercise 10.10

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Henry liked to tell us about his ___________ experiences.

2. Tom ___________ by our house last night about this time.

10.12 Personal / Personnel

1. Personal is an adjective. It means something private or one’s own. Pronounce this word with the accent on the first syllable.

Example: My diary is my personal property.

2. Personnel is a noun. It means the group of people employed by a business or service. Pronounce this word with the accent on the last syllable. It may take either a singular or a plural verb.

Example: The president of the company sent a memo to all of the personnel.

Exercise 10.11

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Please don’t ask so many ___________ questions.

2. She was vice-president in charge of __________ in our company.

10.13 Principal / Principle

1. Principal is usually used as a noun. It means a person who is a leader, someone who is in charge. When it is used as an adjective, it means leading or chief.

Example: The principal of the high school spoke at the assembly.

2. Principle is a noun. It refers to basic truths, rules of human conduct, and fundamental laws.

Example: Our constitution is based on the principles of democracy.

Exercise 10.12

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. I know him to be a man of high ___________.

2. The ___________ partner in the law firm signed the contract.

10.14 Quiet / Quite

1. Quiet means silent, free of noise,

Example: I need a quiet place to study.

2. Quite means entirely, really, rather.

Example: You have been quite busy all day.

Exercise 10.13

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. The Smith family live on a very ____________ street.

2. The street is not ___________ as ____________ as it used to be.

10.15 Suppose / Supposed

Suppose is a verb. It means to assume to be true; to guess; to think.

Example: Do you suppose it will rain today?

Note: The verb suppose is often used in the passive and is followed by to. Do not forget to add the d to the verb: supposed.

Supposed to, in this sense, means to expect or require.

Example: He is supposed to go to the store.

The example means that he is expected to go to the store.

Exercise 10.14

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. This is ___________ to be one of the best restaurants in town.

2. I __________ we will arrive home by noon.

10.16 Then / Than

1. Then is an adverb. It means at that time; next in time, space, or order.

Example: Rhonda then decided to leave.

2. Than is used in comparative statements to introduce the second item.

Example: This suitcase is heavier than that one.

Exercise 10.15

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. First we ate dinner, and ____________ we went to the concert.

2. Mike gets up earlier ___________ Jay does.

10.17 There / Their / They’re

1. There shows direction. It means at that place. It is often used to introduce a thought, as in there is or there are.

Example: Put the tape recorder over there.

2. Their is the possessive form of the pronoun they. It means belonging to them.

Example: The fans received their tickets in the mail.

3. They’re is a contraction of the two words they are.

Example: They’re very thoughtful people.

Exercise 10.16

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. I hear that __________ giving a party in _________ new home.

2. __________ is going to be a parade on St. Patrick’s Day.

10.18 Through / Though / Thought

1. Through means finished. It also means to go in one side and out the other.

Examples: He is through with his work.

We walked through the park after dark.

2. Though means the same as although; despite the fact that.

Example: Though Jim had left home early, he arrived at work late.

3. Thought is the past tense and the past participle of think. It can also he used as a noun, and it means an idea.

Example: I thought you had gone home.

Exercise 10.17

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. I ___________ you drove to New England last year.

2. ___________ I closed the door quickly, the cat ran __________ it.

10.19 To / Two / Too

1. To means in the direction of, when it is used as a preposition.

Example: Pierre is going to Canada this summer.

Sometimes the word to is the first word in a verbal phrase.

Example: We are going to move to a new apartment next month.

2. Two is the same as the number 2.

Example: “You have two phone messages,” Selena told her boyfriend.

3. Too means also; in addition to; very; overly so.

Example: The soup was too hot to eat.

Exercise 10.18

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. __________ of the masked men approached the bank teller.

2. This dress is ____________ old ____________ wear ___________ the party.

10.20 Use / Used

1. Use is a verb. It means to employ; to make use of. Pronounce the s like z.

Example: We use a broom to sweep the floor.

2. Used is often followed by the word to. It means accustomed to; familiar with; was in the habit of.

Example: Selma was used to working eight hours a day.

Exercise 10.19

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. John is not ___________ to staying up late.

2. Accountants ___________ adding machines often.

10.21 Weather / Whether

1. Weather is a noun. It refers to the state of the atmosphere at a given time or place.

Example: The weather in Kansas City is usually cold in December.

2. Whether is a subordinator. It means if it is so that; if it is the case that; in case; either.

Examples: We should find out whether the museum is open on Sundays.

He passed the test, whether by skill or luck.

Exercise 10.20

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Airline pilots frequently check the ______________ conditions along the route.

2. Rosetta did not know __________ to laugh or to cry.

10.22 Whose / Who’s

1. Whose is the possessive form of the pronoun who. It means belonging to whom.

Example: Whose tennis shoes are these?

2. Who’s is a contraction of the two words who is.

Example: Who’s that man over there?

Exercise 10.21

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. Tanya is someone __________ never at a loss for words.

2. I don’t know ___________ book is on the table.

10.23 Your / You’re

1. Your is the possessive form of the pronoun you. It means belonging to you.

Example: Your car is in the parking lot.

2. You’re is the contraction of the two words you are.

Example: You’re going to enioy this book, Lorraine.

Exercise 10.22

Fill in the blanks with the correct words:

1. ___________ going to the concert with us tomorrow.

2. You bought __________ ticket a few weeks ago.

Answer Key

Chapter 1

Exercise 1.1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 1.2

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 1.3

1. dogs

2. dates

3. tricks

4. tests

5. sales

6. words

7. sentences

8. paragraphs

9. operators

10. students

Exercise 1.4

1. skies

2. days

3. ladies

4. penalties

5. keys

6. turkeys

7. counties

8. candies

9. armies

10. batteries

Exercise 1.5

1. brushes

2. watches

3. buses

4. waltzes

5. taxes

6. glasses

7. boxes

8. messes

9. rashes

10. stitches

Exercise 1.6

1. selves

2. halves

3. hooves or hoofs

4. shelves

5. proofs

6. lives

7. thieves

8. wolves

9. cliffs

10. wives

Exercise 1.7

1. sopranos

2. vetoes

3. tomatoes

4. potatoes

5. pianos

6. radios

7. zeros or zeroes

8. ratios

9. heroes

10. dominos or dominoes

Exercise 1.8

1. mice

2. teeth

3. women

4. children

5. men

Exercise 1.9

1. the cats’ names

2. their owners’ commands

3. the baby’s crib

4. the baby’s mother

5. Ginny’s food

Exercise 1.10

1. Saturday’s

2. weeks’

3. Year’s

4. day’s

5. penny’s

Exercise 1.11

1. no apostrophe

2. friends’

3. refugees’

4. no apostrophe

5. no apostrophe

6. students’

7. no apostrophe

8. customer’s or customers’

9. parents’

10. no apostrophe

Exercise 1.12

1. I enjoy eating out instead of cooking at home. Living in Seattle, I have a choice of many different kinds of restaurants. My favorite restaurant is a Japanese one near my home. It is very small and very popular, so I usually have to wait for a table.

2. If a person wants to learn to play a musical instrument well, he or she will have to develop self-discipline. The serious music student, for example, must be willing to give up watching two or three hours of television a day and, instead, spend his or her time practicing.

3. During the past year or two, the price of food has risen sharply. Every time I go to the market, you can see increases in several items. Not so long ago, your twenty dollars bought quite a few bags of groceries, but now I can carry twenty dollars’ worth of food home in one bag.

4. I received a camera for a graduation present last year. It worked fine at first, but after a few months, I could tell that something was wrong with it. The pictures were so blurry that I couldn’t recognize the people in them. The repairperson at the camera shop wanted too much money to repair it, so I stopped using it. I would be wasting my money to buy film for that lemon.

5. My brother likes his job as a lifeguard at the beach. He doesn’t have to wear a coat and tie to work, and he is out in the fresh air all day. He has an important job. He doesn’t just watch pretty girls; he is responsible for the lives of all the people who come to enjoy the ocean.

Exercise 1.13

1. theirs

2. hers

3. theirs

4. his

5. mine

Exercise 1.14

1. You’re

2. They’re

3. Who’s

4. It’s

5. They’re

6. hers

7. theirs

8. its, your

9. Whose

10. You’re

Exercise 1.15

1. C

2. I

3. C

4. me

5. C

Chapter 2

Exercise 2.1

1. stops, stopped

2. hurries, hurried

3. trips, tripped

4. glare, glared

5. watches, watched

Exercise 2.2

1. plans

2. works

3. saves

4. opens

5. watches

6. waits

7. listens

8. changes

9. snows

10. removes

Exercise 2.3

1. met

2. came

3. gave

4. made

5. threw

6. rode

7. ate

8. had

9. held

10. kept

Exercise 2.4

1. letting

2. jumping

3. hitting

4. returning

5. swimming

6. occurring

7. dripping

8. wrapping

9. screaming

10. getting

Exercise 2.5

1. stops, stopped, stopped, stopping

2. carries, carried, carried, carrying

3. watches, watched, watched, watching

4. tries, tried, tried, trying

5. hopes, hoped, hoped, hoping

Exercise 2.6

1. is, was/were, been, being

2. freezes, froze, frozen, freezing

3. runs, ran, run, running

4. chooses, chose, chosen, choosing

5. shakes, shook, shaken, shaking

Exercise 2.7

1. Do shop

2. might have received

3. have found

4. could send

5. can order

Exercise 2.8

1. have been helped

2. can see

3. can examine

4. may be done

5. must cut

Exercise 2.9

1. run

2. sung

3. seen

4. heard

5. broken

6. known

7. flown

8. brought

9. eaten

10. said

Exercise 2.10

1. is(n’t)

2. should (always) practice

3. must (certainly) give

4. may travel

5. could close

Exercise 2.11

1. will want

2. will earn

3. will begin

4. will stay

5. will ask

Exercise 2.12

1. will

2. would

3. will

4. would

5. will

6. would

Exercise 2.13

1. has, predicted

2. have, kept

3. have, planned

4. have, brought

5. have, bought

Exercise 2.14

1. had shown

2. had promised

3. had had

4. had run

5. had chosen

Exercise 2.15

1. will have learned

2. will have paid

3. will have lived

4. will have gone

5. will have spoken

Exercise 2.16

1. Last Tuesday night I went to the library because I had a test in history on Wednesday morning. It was too noisy at home to study. My brother was playing the stereo, my mother was vacuuming, and my little sister and her friend were chasing each other around the house. How was I supposed to concentrate with all that commotion?

2. My friend Greg loves peanut butter. Every morning he spreads peanut butter on his toast or waffles. He snacks on peanut butter cups at school, and, of course, he eats peanut butter sandwiches for lunch every day. Nowadays, he bakes his own peanut butter cookies because his mother has refused to make them anymore. Greg is a hopeless case; he even covers a slice of chocolate cake with peanut butter.

3. My wife and I bought a golden retriever puppy last year. We made the mistake on the first few nights of allowing the puppy to sleep on a rug by our bed because he missed his brothers and sisters. Later when we made a bed for him in the laundry room, he howled and scratched on the door for several hours every night. After a while the neighbors called on the telephone to complain about the noise. We thought that he would never give up. The puppy finally learned to sleep by himself, and the neighbors started speaking to us again.

Chapter 3

Exercise 3.1

Subject

Auxiliary Verb

Main Verb

1. Scotsman

Does

wear

2. Americans

can

satisfy

3. festivals

are

held

4. events

_________

include

5. contestants

are

throwing

Exercise 3.2

The following are possible responses:

1. Come

2. Put

3. Shut

4. Meet

5. Get

Exercise 3.3

1. [Since 1789], [between the ages], for fourteen and eighteen], [as congressional pages], [in our nation’s capital]

2. [during vacation], [in Washington, D.C.], [for a year], [at Page School], [in the Library of Congress]

3. [for members], [of Congress], [from 9 a.m.], [to 5 p.m.]

4. [of the present system], [at home], [with their parents]

5. [despite the pressures], [of a busy schedule], for national political life]

Exercise 3.4

1. [on top of the car], [of luggage]

2. [instead of a salad], [with his dinner]

3. [in front of me], [about the long wait], [in line]

4. [After two innings], [at Yankee Stadium], [because of rain]

5. [together with several council members], [in a panel discussion], [on the city’s transit problems]

Exercise 3.5

Subject

Verb

Direct Object

1. uncle

plays

_______

2. children

asked

questions food

3. you

did order

food

4. Marilyn

sang

_______

5. Steve

can play

guitar

Exercise 3.6

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 3.7

1. He, it

2. you, she

3. you, we

4. They

5. I

Exercise 3.8

1. it

2. us

3. her

4. you, them

5. me

Exercise 3.9

1. him

2. He, I

3. us

4. I

5. he, I

Exercise 3.10

1. she’ll

2. they’ve

3. he’d

4. he’s

5. I’ll

6. I’m

7. we’ve

8. here’s

9. it’s

10. we’re

Exercise 3.11

Your sentences will vary.

1. S-LV-NC

2. S-V-O

3. S-V

4. S-V-O

5. S-V

6. S-LV-AC

7. S-V

8. S-LV-NC

9. S-V-O

10. S-LV-AC

Chapter 4

Exercise 4.1

1. New York City’s, its

2. His, city’s

3. Today’s, America’s

4. salt’s, our

5. engineer’s, people’s

Exercise 4.2

1. box, fought

2. turning, home

3. winning, rookie, head

4. excited, place, goal

5. winning, laughing, shouting, football

Exercise 4.3

It is [a] [beautiful] [sunny] day in [a] [popular] [theme] park in [the] United States. Mr. and Mrs. Tomita on [their] [first] trip to [this] country, listen attentively to [a] [tour] [guide’s] claim that [thirty-five thousand] adults and children visit [the] park [every] day. [Most] visitors to [this] [magical] place are [attracted] by [an] [amazing] variety of shows, rides, exhibits, and restaurants. [Both] Mr. and Mrs. Tomita, however, are impressed by [the] [clean] surroundings. They are staying at [the] [vacation-land’s] hotel where [all] [the] rooms have immaculately [clean] [blue] [plastic] furniture, [green] and [beige] walls, and beds [covered] with [purple-green] spreads. [The] [hotel’s] [parking] lot, with [its] carefully [planted] vegetation, is also sparkling [clean.] [The] [smallest] scrap of litter is sucked underground and rushed via pipes to [a] [fabulous] [trash] compactor. Even [the] [friendly] birds do [their] part by picking [some] [bread] crumbs off [the] [restaurant’s] patio at [the] hotel. Mr. and Mrs. Tomira know that they will enjoy themselves in [this] [spotless] [American] [tourist] attraction.

Exercise 4.4

1. cluttered, noisy

2. frigid, ice-covered

3. battered, rusty; luxurious, shiny

4. graceful, elegant

5. old-fashioned, clumsy, worn-out

Exercise 4.5

1. less interesting

2. least dangerous

3. less expensive

4. least creative

5. less sleepy

Exercise 4.6

1. most important

2. easier

3. better

4. bigger, more powerful

5. most recent

6. greater

7. more efficient

8. simpler or more simple

9. largest

10. best, lowest

Exercise 4.7

The following are possible sentences.

1. Kimiko arrived at 8:00 o’clock after a long flight from Tokyo.

2. The pilot landed the plane smoothly and silently.

3. All the passengers on the plane applauded loudly.

4. Kimiko walked quickly toward the exit door to deplane.

5. She was thrilled to be in Chicago after so many years.

Exercise 4.8

1. most reluctantly

2. less efficiently

3. more systematically

4. most definitely

5. more easily

Exercise 4.9

1. Today 1,500 Seminole live [on the reservation built on 120,000 acres of swamp in the Florida Everglades.]

2. A [of these Indians, living near Tampa,] has defied the law.

3. [In addition to a shrine and a museum,] the have built a drive-thru smoke shop there.

4. The have been selling cigarettes [without charging sales tax.]

5. [From the first,] state and local law did not like these Indians [to sell cigarettes.]

Exercise 4.10

1. profit, Carolyn

2. time, Josephine

3. mountains, we

4. shoes, Tina

5. school, Jerry

Exercise 4.11

1. Nick saved almost $100 by making his own repairs on his car.

2. The candidate promised at the political rally that he would reduce unemployment.

3. Alfredo ordered a pizza with mushrooms and pepperoni to go.

4. The painters told us on Wednesday that they would begin painting the house. or The painters told us that they would begin painting the house on Wednesday.

5. Rex suddenly saw a woman in the front row jump up and run out... exit. or Rex... jump up suddenly... exit.

Exercise 4.12

The following is a possible revision. Yours may vary.

Expecting a robot like R2D2, Willy was disappointed by the robot that was demonstrated to him. Willy had hoped the robot would have useful arms and legs, but it propelled itself on large wheels. Having limited mobility, the robot could not climb stairs. A distance of less than seventy feet was necessary between the robot and its owner for the robot to be able to respond to voice commands. Frustrated by the poor quality, Willy decided to delay his decision to buy a robot.

Chapter 5

Exercise 5.1

1. main clause

2. main clause

3. phrase

4. phrase

5. phrase

Exercise 5.2

Exercise 5.3

1. The was a well-known specialist, but my would not accept her diagnosis.

2. The pole tried again to break the record, and this time succeeded.

3. is a large house, so will have room for all their furniture.

4. spent four hours a day practicing the flute, for was determined to improve.

5. can drive to the beach, or can ride our bicycles.

Exercise 5.4

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 5.5

1. had planned to bicycle through England last summer; instead, painted the house and built a fence.

2. forgot my umbrella this morning; consequently, was soaked to the skin by the time reached the office.

3. works six hours a day and overtime on weekends at a restaurant; in addition, takes three classes at a community college.

4. First reads the comics; then, settles down to enjoy the sports section.

5. looked very different with her new haircut; in fact, hardly recognized her.

Exercise 5.6

1. Besides that, a

2. dictionary, in addition, shows

3. you, furthermore, the

4. dictionary, in fact, is

5. You must, however, develop

Exercise 5.7

1. gardener, secretary, short-order cook

2. giving information, keeping the park, and preserving the natural beauty

3. puts on her uniform, packs her lunch, and rides her bicycle

4. Most faces are new, but others are familiar.

5. sunny or rainy, sizzling or freezing

6. to enjoy nature and to hike in the woods

7. Dedicated and enthusiastic

8. answering questions and being helpful

Exercise 5.8

1. sand, pebbles, rocks, and acrylic paint

2. Venezuela, Argentina, Peru, Chile, and Brazil

3. bath, went... room, closed... door, turned... radio, and lay... bed

4. to clean, to cook, to iron, or to shop

5. flying hand gliders, going deep-sea fishing, or riding horseback

Exercise 5.9

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 5.10

The following are possible revisions. Your sentences may vary.

1. More corporations are beginning to open day-care centers for their employees’ children; the centers are open from nine to five.

2. Working parents take fewer days off if their children are well cared for because they worry less.

3. Two-paycheck families appreciate the cost benefits, for the price of a full-time babysitter would use up an entire salary.

4. Single-parent families especially appreciate the convenience of quality child-care programs; in fact, child-care programs help to recruit high-quality employees.

5. Government support helps the corporations build special facilities; preschool playgrounds and indoor classrooms are often too expensive for smaller corporations to construct.

Chapter 6

Exercise 6.1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 6.2

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Exercise 6.3

1. His lifetime batting record, which remained unbroken until the summer of 1985, was 4,191 hits in 24 seasons.

2. Cobb, who was a millionaire, gave...

3. Since most of his fans were ignorant of his violent disposition, he remained...

4. He welcomed a fight even when he was sick and old.

5. Cobb threatened to use a loaded handgun that he carried with him.

Exercise 6.4

1. The coach was fired because his team never won a game.

2. When the cat dug holes in my flower beds, I chased it away.

3. Although they lost the first game, they won the second one.

4. While we were riding our bicycles, someone stole our car.

5. Toni, who is a full-time college student, works thirty hours a week as a musician.

Exercise 6.5

1. dog, which is a poodle, digs

2. no comma

3. Mary, which... liner, is

4. stereo, which... ours, has

5. no comma

Exercise 6.6

The following are possible sentences. Your sentences may vary.

1. Michelle has completed almost all the courses required by her major, except for English 1, Psychology 2, and History 17.

2. Shelby has big plans for the sweepstakes money if he wins it. For example, he hopes to travel to many foreign countries, including several in Africa.

3. This fabric offers a number of advantages for traveling in the summer, such as being washable, quick-drying, wrinkle-free, and lightweight.

4. She passed the time on jury duty by knitting and by working crossword puzzles.

5. The instructor reviewed the material to be covered in the chapter test and especially called our attention to the last three pages.

Exercise 6.7

1. S

2. S

3. F

4. F

5. F

6. F

7. S

8. F

9. F

10. F

Chapter 7

Exercise 7.1

1. tree

gives

2. student

likes

3. photograph

is

4. driver

collects

5. car

requires

Exercise 7.2

Subjects

Aux. Verbs and Main Verbs

Words Between Subject and Verb

1. purpose

is

(of many zoos in large cities)

2. visitors

were

(to the zoo, not the animals)

3. animal

spends

(in one of these new zoos no longer)

4. quarters

give

(like those in San Diego’s Wild Animal Park)

5. keepers

work

(whenever possible)

Exercise 7.3

Subject

Verb

1. disagreement

is

2. much

is

3. chances

are

4. clue

is

5. humidity

signals

Exercise 7.4

1. are

2. were

3. are

4. is

5. answers

Exercise 7.5

1. taste (cookies)

2. seems (president)

3. were (sisters)

4. makes (bottle)

5. hears (instructor)

Exercise 7.6

1. have

2. have

3. have

4. have

5. has

Exercise 7.7

1. works

2. needs

3. plans

4. spends

5. seems

Exercise 7.8

1. are

2. have

3. was

4. Is

5. was

Exercise 7.9

1. is

2. was

3. is

4. sounds

5. causes

Exercise 7.10

Antecedents

Verbs

1. Americans

seek

2. family

goes

3. recorders

plug

4. videogames

hook

5. television

has

Exercise 7.11

Pronouns

Antecedents

1. their

Tanya and Rosalie

2. his

engineer

3. your

you

4. me

I

5. they

sweaters

Exercise 7.12

Pronouns

Antecedents

1. her or his

artist

2. their

visitors

3. her

Mrs. Jones

4. they

birds

5. their

students

Exercise 7.13

Pronouns

Antecedent

1. their

Ralph or George

2. their

Mr. and Mrs. Asano

3. her

Either Martha or Angela

4. their

either gardener or window cleaners

5. his

Neither Bruce nor Richard

Exercise 7.14

1. its

2. their

3. its

4. their

5. its

Exercise 7.15

Pronouns

Antecedent

1. his or her

Someone

2. his or her

anyone

3. her

each

4. his or her

Nobody

5. his or her

Everyone

Exercise 7.16

1. who

2. that

3. who

4. that

5. that

Exercise 7.17

1. who

2. whom

3. who

4. whom

5. who

Exercise 7.18

1. Maria said to Tess, “I have lost my pen.”

2. There are so many automobile accidents because drivers are careless.

3. Dr. Bronowski is a great surgeon. Surgery is a rewarding profession.

4. Before taking a test, Roberto studies and gets a good night’s sleep. Rest is important.

5. The graduates marched solemnly down the aisle to receive their diplomas. The ceremony was so inspiring.

Chapter 8

Exercise 8.1

1. Andrew did not want to wear his raincoat to school yesterday, nor did he want to carry an umbrella.

2. I have seen that movie star before, yet I cannot remember her name.

3. Louis and Gerald tried out for the basketball team, and both of them were chosen.

4. Brett and Lula were married on Friday morning, but they did not leave for Hawaii until Saturday.

5. Athletes must train hard and watch their diets every day, or they will not be able to compete.

Exercise 8.2

1. No

2. No

3. No

4. No

5. Yes

Exercise 8.3

1. Last semester Evelyn took four classes at college, worked twenty hours a week and sang in the church choir on weekends, (or week, and)

2. My favorite breakfast cereal contains the following ingredients: malt, barley, oats, honey, and raisins.

3. He caught the pass, ran along the sideline for twenty yards into the end zone but failed to score because he had stepped out of bounds on the two-yard line, (or zone, but)

4. The students were told to bring their workbooks, dictionaries, lined paper, and pens to every class meeting.

5. The recipe listed the following ingredients: sugar, butter, Hour, cocoa, walnuts, milk, and peanut butter.

Exercise 8.4

1. Yes

2. No

3. Yes

4. No

5. Yes

Exercise 8.5

1. Within two or three months, the parking lot will be less crowded.

2. After a short pause, the speaker answered the questions from the audience.

3. Best of all, the food is always served hot.

4. In many tropical countries, the natives take a siesta in the middle of the day.

5. John has been commuting 25 miles a day to school. Fortunately, he found an apartment for rent near the college yesterday.

Exercise 8.6

1. No

2. No

3. Yes

4. Yes

5. No

Exercise 8.7

1. Although Jo Ellen had always known the truth about Harry, she still loved him.

2. Before you can understand calculus, you must understand algebra and trigonometry.

3. If the rain doesn’t stop soon, the rivers will overflow their banks.

4. By the time you are ready to take the test, you will be able to answer all of the questions correctly.

5. The thick salmon steak was delicious even though it was a little overcooked.

Exercise 8.8

1. No

2. Yes

3. Yes

4. No

5. Yes

Exercise 8.9

1. The raindrops fell into the clear, blue, deep water of the pool.

2. Shana left her discarded, smelly clothes scattered around her large, sunlit bedroom.

3. The acrobat entertained the huge, enthusiastic audience by his skillful, graceful performance.

4. In the early morning, the joggers run effortlessly along the deserted, shell-strewn beach.

5. Marge’s pink sunburnt skin looked painful to me.

Exercise 8.10

1. No

2. No

3. No

4. Yes

5. No

Exercise 8.11

1. We hope, therefore, that you will send our refund soon.

2. Karen’s parents, as a rule, drive her to school every day.

3. The jury, as a result, took four days to arrive at the verdict.

4. The kitchen, in fact, has not been cleaned since last week.

5. My opinion, in the long run, is based on the facts as I understand them.

Exercise 8.12

1. Yes

2. No

3. No

4. No

5. No

Exercise 8.13

1. I don’t entirely agree, Jim, with your position.

2. Play it again, Sam.

3. Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, you have heard the evidence.

4. Ella, tell me that you love me.

5. I hope, Paulette, that you will practice your lesson.

Exercise 8.14

1. No

2. Yes

3. No

4. No

5. Yes

Exercise 8.15

1. My friend Carla Caraway went to New York to get a job as a dancer.

2. A young woman, alone in a strange city, must learn how to take care of herself.

3. She auditioned for Judith Jamison, the famous choreographer of the Alvin Ailey company.

4. Carla, breathless and exhausted, waited after the audition to hear the choreographer’s opinion.

5. Carla joined the Ailey company, one of the best dance companies in the world.

Exercise 8.16

1. Yes

2. No

3. Yes

4. No

5. No

Exercise 8.17

1. A talented American contralto, Marian Anderson, who had sung at the White House, was barred from singing in Constitution Hall in Washington.

2. Instead, Ms. Anderson sang at the Lincoln Memorial before 75,000 people who had gathered in support of her.

3. Three Aaron Copland ballets, drawing upon American themes, are Billy the Kid, Rodeo, and Appalachian Spring.

4. Copland wrote Appalachian Spring for Martha Graham, choreographer and dancer.

5. Ernest Hemingway, an American author, began his first job as a newspaper reporter at the age of eighteen.

Exercise 8.18

1. “I can never do these homework assignments,” Gary complained.

2. “Well,” said his mother, “you haven’t even tried.”

3. “I never learn anything in that class,” he said, “so what’s the point?”

4. “Besides,” he said to her, “I have a date tonight.”

5. “Gary, you should do your assignment before you go out,” his mother advised.

Exercise 8.19

1. George will move to Las Vegas, Nevada, in January.

2. His address has been The Stanford Arms Hotel, Apt. 10, 536 W. 18th Street, Rittman, Indiana 46206, for the last six years.

3. We will forward his mail to his new address: The Pyramid Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada 89501.

4. The Battle of Gettysburg was fought on July 4, 1863.

5. The annual rodeo in Palmdale, California, features a bull-riding contest.

Exercise 8.20

1. No

2. Yes

3. Yes

4. No

5. Yes

Chapter 9

Exercise 9.1

1. When did you last study punctuation?

2. Mr. Newman is a famous actor.

3. Help! Fire!

4. I would be living in New York if I could afford an apartment on E. 68th Street.

5. He earned his B.A. degree from NYU.

6. Hal wondered what was wrong with him.

7. What is wrong with Hal?

8. Hooray! We’ve won the game!

9. When we were young, we never questioned why we were poor.

10. How are you today?

Exercise 9.2

1. for; he

2. television; then

3. ingredients: flour

4. cars: an

5. Sacramento; Betty Ford, Palm Springs; and

6. library; however,

7. 3:45 p.m.; nevertheless,

8. entrees: lasagna

9. winter; therefore,

10. movie; we

Exercise 9.3

1. “The Lottery,” “A Rose for Emily”

2. “Have you seen The Tempest at the Old Globe Theater yet?”

3. Beloved

4. “Stop that shoplifter!”

5. “Read... tomorrow”?

6. “A... Problem,” Times

7. “The Owl and the Pussycat”

8. Cheers, Roseanne, L.A. Law

9. “Poetry and Advertising,” Language in Thought and Action

10. “College Tuition,” The Atlantic

Exercise 9.4

1. fifty-year-old

2. left-hand, one-way

3. dry-cleaned

4. sharp-eyed, run-down sus-

5. sister-in-law, second-hand, seventy-two

6. free-lance, self-help

7. Two-thirds, cov-, high-risk

8. bullet-scarred, high-rise

9. major-elect, upper-class, self-reliance

10. half-heartedly, self-hypnosis

Exercise 9.5

1. Anh Nguyen, American

2. I’m, English 1, I’m, History 21

3. When Mary, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art

4. I, Phantom of the Opera

5. Sue’s, Ritz, Kraft, Coca-Cola

6. When Darlene, Sears, Wamsutta

7. Are, Sugar Bowl, New Year’s Day

8. In, I, Saturdays

9. Yellowstone National Park, United States

10. My, Hemingway, I

Chapter 10

Exercise 10.1

1. accept

2. except

Exercise 10.2

1. advise

2. advice

Exercise 10.3

1. affected

2. effect

Exercise 10.4

1. all ready

2. already

Exercise 10.5

1. dessert

2. desert

3. deserted

Exercise 10.6

1. It’s

2. its

Exercise 10.7

1. know

2. no

Exercise 10.8

1. lead

2. led

Exercise 10.9

1. lose

2. loose

Exercise 10.10

1. past

2. passed

Exercise 10.11

1. personal

2. personnel

Exercise 10.12

1. principles

2. principal

Exercise 10.13

1. quiet

2. quite, quiet

Exercise 10.14

1. supposed

2. suppose

Exercise 10.15

1. then

2. than

Exercise 10.16

1. they’re, their

2. There

Exercise 10.17

1. thought

2. Though, through

Exercise 10.18

1. Two

2. too, to, to

Exercise 10.19

1. used

2. use

Exercise 10.20

1. weather

2. whether

Exercise 10.21

1. who’s

2. whose

Exercise 10.22

1. You’re

2. your

Glossary

Action verbs tell what the subject does, did, or will do.

Adjective clauses are subordinate clauses that are also called relative clauses because the subordinator “relates” the rest of the subordinate clause to a noun or pronoun in the main clause. The subordinate clause acts like an adjective modifying that part of the main clause by adding information about it.

Adjectives make nouns or pronouns more specific or concrete by limiting and describing them.

Adverb clauses are subordinate clauses that are introduced by a subordinator, which specifies time, place, cause, condition, or contrast when indicating the relationship between the main and the subordinate clause.

Adverbial connectives (however, nevertheless, then) are words that are used with a semicolon and a comma to join main clauses together. They are also called adverbial conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs and answer one of the following questions: When? Why? How? Where?

Agreement is the matching in number, gender, and person between words. Subjects and verbs must agree, and pronouns must agree with their antecedents.

Antecedents are nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases to which a noun refers.

Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs used with main verbs to form verb phrases.

Base forms of verbs are the present forms of the verbs with no -s at the end.

Collective nouns (such as family) refer to a collection of persons, places, things, ideas, or activities.

Comma splices are grammatical errors that occur when main clauses are joined with only a comma and no connectives.

Common nouns name people, places, things, ideas, or activities in general.

Comparatives are the forms of adjectives or adverbs used to compare two people, places, ideas, things, or actions.

Completers follow linking verbs to describe or rename the subject.

Complex sentences are composed of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Compound antecedents are two or more antecedents joined by a coordinating connective. When joined by and, they require a plural pronoun. When joined by or, neither... nor, or either ... or, they require a pronoun that agrees with the antecedent closer to the pronoun.

Compound objects are two or more direct objects joined by a coordinating connective.

Compound sentences contain two or more main clauses joined by a connective and by appropriate punctuation.

Compound subjects are two or more subjects joined by a coordinating connective.

Compound verbs are two or more verbs joined by a coordinating connective.

Connectives are the words used to connect words, phrases, and clauses.

Contractions are words that are formed by combining two words with an apostrophe for the omission of letters.

Coordinating connectives (and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet) are words used with a comma to join words, phrases, and main clauses together. They are also called coordinating conjunctions.

Dangling modifiers are adjectives or adverbs that do not modify any word in the sentence. Sentences with dangling modifiers can be rewritten by inserting a word for the modifier to limit or describe.

Direct objects are the nouns or pronouns that answer the question “What?” or “Whom?” after an action verb. Objects also follow prepositions.

Faulty parallelism is the failure to place similar items in similar grammatical form.

Fused sentences are grammatical errors that occur when main clauses are joined with no punctuation or connectives.

Gender indicates whether a third-person pronoun is masculine, feminine, or neuter.

Indefinite pronouns (such as anyone or someone) usually take a singular verb and require a singular pronoun.

Irregular verbs do not follow any spelling rules to form the past tense.

Linking verbs connect the subject to its description. Common linking verbs include become, feel, seem, appear, and the forms of the verb be.

Main clauses (also called independent clauses) are groups of related words with a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a sentence if the first word is capitalized and the clause ends with a mark of punctuation such as a period or a question mark.

Misplaced modifiers are adjectives or adverbs that have been placed next to words they do not modify. They confuse the reader and should be moved closer to the words they modify.

Modifiers describe, limit, or make specific another word in the sentence.

Noun markers are adjectives that point to the noun that follows them,

Noun phrases are groups of words that include a noun and its modifiers.

Nouns name people, places, things, ideas, or activities.

Number indicates whether a pronoun is singular or plural.

Parallel structure is the placing of similar items in similar grammatical form.

Participles are verb forms that may function as part of a verb phrase (was laughing) or as an adjective (The winning team, laughing and shouting, ran off the field). The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of the verb. The past participle of a regular verb is formed by adding -d or -ed to the base form.

Perfect tenses are formed by using a form of the auxiliary verb have and the past participle of the main verb.

Person indicates the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about.

Phrases are groups of words without a subject and a verb. Examples are noun phrases, verb phrases, and prepositional phrases.

Plural nouns refer to more than one person, place, thing, idea, or activity.

Possessive nouns are nouns that change spelling to indicate a belonging-to relationship.

Prepositions are the words used to show position, direction, or relationship.

Present participles are formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb.

Pronouns are used to take the place of a noun or to refer to a noun. A personal pronoun shows person, number, and gender.

Proper nouns name specific people, places, things, ideas, or activities.

Regular verbs add -d or -ed to form the past tense.

Relative pronouns are subordinators (such as who or which) that introduce a subordinate clause. The relative pronoun must agree with the noun or noun phrase in the main clause as its antecedent.

Sentence fragments are groups of words that begin with a capital letter and end with a period, but do not express a complete thought or contain a main clause.

Sentences must contain at least one subject and one verb and express a complete thought.

Simple sentences are sentences that contain one main clause.

Subjects are the people or things the verb is asking or telling about.

Subordinate clauses (also called dependent clauses) are groups of related words with subjects and verbs that are introduced by a subordinator, They make incomplete statements, so they must be attached to a main clause to be a complete sentence.

Subordinators are words that are used to introduce a subordinate clause. Examples: because, that, although.

Superlatives are the forms of adjectives or adverbs used to compare three or more people, places, ideas, things, or actions.

Tense is the change of verb form to indicate when the action occurred.

Verbal phrases include a verbal plus a noun and/or a prepositional phrase. Examples: to choose a pet, choosing a pet; chosen for its intelligence.

Verbals are formed from verbs and are used to introduce verbal phrases. They include one of the three following forms: to plus the base form of the verb, a present participle, or a past participle.

Verbs are the words in sentences that indicate the action of the sentence.

Index

A

Adjective comparison

comparative degree, 77-80

superlative degree, 77-80

Adjectives

clauses, 116-119

descriptive, 71-72

possessive pronouns and nouns, 70-71

special forms, 73-74

Adverb clauses, 116-119

Adverbial connectives, 101-102

Adverbs, 39, 81-85

“Affect/effect,” 193-194

Agreement

pronoun and antecedent, 143-152

pronoun reference, 152-154

subject and verb, 129-142

special problems, 137-142

“Already/all ready,” 194

C

Capital letters, 188-190

Comma splice, 107-109, 119-120

Commas, uses with

adjectives before noun, 163-165

dates, 173-174

direct quotations, 172-173

geographical names and addresses, 173-174

introductory subordinate clauses, 161-163

introductory words/phrases, 159-161

items in series, 157-159

nonessential words/phrases, 169-172

words in direct address, 167-168

words that interrupt, 165-167

Compound

objects, 61-64

sentences, 97-99

subjects, 61-64, 134-136

verbs, 61-64

Contractions, 18-19, 39-40, 64-65

D

Dangling modifiers, 91-93

Direct objects of action verbs, 55-56

E

“Either...or,” 135-136

I

Irregular verbs, 28-29

“Its/it’s,” 195-196

K

“Know/no,” 196-197

L

“Lead/led,” 197

Linking verbs, 24

“Loose/lose,” 198

M

Main clauses

connecting, 96-102

identifying, 95-96

punctuating, 103

Misplaced modifiers, 89-91

N

“Neither...nor,” 135-136

Noun markers, 71

Nouns

collective, 147

common and proper, 1-2

identifying, 1-4

possessive, 8-11

singular and plural, 4-8

P

Parallel structure, 104-106

“Past/passed,” 198-199

“personal/personnel,” 199-200

Person shifts, 12-15

Possessives, 8-11

Prepositional phrases, 51-55

“Principal/principle,” 200

Pronoun and antecedent agreement, 143-152

Pronouns, 11-21, 59-61

contractions, 18-19

object, 60-61

personal, 11-19

possessive, 16-17

reflexive, 19-21

subject, 59-60

Punctuation

colon, 177-180

exclamation point, 176-177

hyphen/dash, 186-188

period, 175-176

question mark, 176

quotation marks, 181-186

semicolon, 177-180

Q

“Quiet/quite,” 201

Quotation marks, 181-186

R

Reflexive pronouns, 19-21

S

Sentence composition, 49-68

commands and requests, 51

direct objects (of action verbs), 55-56

linking verbs, 56-59

object pronouns, 60-61

prepositional phrases, 51-55

subjects and verbs, 49-51

subject pronouns, 59-60

Sentence fragment, 122-127

Sentence patterns, 65-68

Simple sentence, 96

Subject/verb agreement, 129-142

Subordinate clauses, 111-127

and adverb/adjective clauses, 116-119

punctuation of, 120-122

to correct comma splices, 119-120

Subordinators, 112-115, 116

“Suppose/supposed,” 201-202

T

“Then/than,” 202-203

“There/their/they’re,” 203

“Through/though/thought,” 204

“To/two/too,” 205

U

Usage, 191-208

“Use/used,” 206

V

Verb tenses, 23-48

future, 40-42

irregular present and past, 27-30

perfect, 42-46

regular present and past, 23-27

shift problems, 46-48

Verbal phrases, 86-89

punctuation of, 88-89

Verbs, 23-48

action, 24, 58

adverbs, 39, 81-85

auxiliary, 35-39

contractions, 39-40, 64-65

linking, 24-56-59

principal forms of, 31-34

W

“Weather/whether,” 206-207

“Who,” 18, 141-142

“Whose/who’s,” 207-208

Y

“Your/you’re,” 208