TEACHING AT ITS BEST

NILSON

This third edition of the best-selling handbook offers faculty at all levels an essential toolbox of hundreds of practical teaching techniques, formats, classroom activities, and exercises, all of which can be implemented immediately. This thoroughly revised edition includes the newest portrait of the Millennial student; current research from cognitive psychology; a focus on outcomes maps; the latest legal options on copyright issues; and how to best use new technology including wikis, blogs, TEACHING

podcasts, vodcasts, and clickers. Entirely new chapters include subjects such as matching teaching methods with learning outcomes, inquiry-guided learning, and using visuals to teach, and new sections address Felder and Silverman’s Index of Learning Styles, SCALE-UP classrooms, multiple true-false test items, and much more.

Praise for the Third Edition of Teaching at Its Best

“ Everyone—veterans as well as novices—will profi t from reading Teaching at Its Best, for it provides A

TEACHING

both theory and practical suggestions for handling all of the problems one encounters in teaching classes varying in size, ability, and motivation.”

—

WILBERT MCKEACHIE, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, and coauthor, T ITS BEST

McKeachie’s Teaching Tips

“ This new edition of Dr. Nilson’s book, with its completely updated material and several new topics, is an even more powerful collection of ideas and tools than the last. What a great resource, especially for beginning teachers but also for us veterans!”

AT ITS BEST

—L. DEE FINK, author, Creating Signifi cant Learning Experiences

“ This third edition of Teaching at Its Best is successful at weaving the latest research on teaching and learning into what was already a thorough exploration of each topic. New information on how we learn, how students develop, and innovations in instructional strategies complement the solid foundation established in the fi rst two editions.”

—

MARILLA D. SVINICKI, Department of Psychology, The University of Texas, Austin, EDITION

and coauthor, McKeachie’s Teaching Tips

THIRD

A Research-Based Resource

T H E A U T H O R

LINDA B. NILSON is the founding director of the Offi ce of Teaching Effectiveness and Innovation at

{ for College Instructors }

Clemson University. She is the author of The Graphic Syllabus and the Outcomes Map: Communicating Your Course from Jossey-Bass.

T H I R D E D I T I O N

EDUCATION/HIGHER

www.josseybass.com

LINDA B. NILSON

Cover design by Michael Cook

TEACHING

AT ITS BEST

TEACHING

AT ITS BEST

A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors

Third Edition

Linda B. Nilson

Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by Jossey-Bass

A Wiley Imprint

989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741—www.josseybass.com

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nilson, Linda Burzotta.

Teaching at its best : a research-based resource for college instructors / Linda B. Nilson. — 3rd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-40104-0 (pbk.)

1. College teaching. 2. Effective teaching. I. Title.

LB2331.N55 2010

378.17—dc22

2010000722

Printed in the United States of America

third edition

PB Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The Jossey-Bass

Higher and Adult Education Series

CONTENTS

The Author

xv

Designing the Learning Process

Preface

xvii

Helpful Frameworks for Designing a Course

Showing Students Their Learning Process

Outcomes-Centered Course Development

Part One

LAYING THE GROUNDWORK

3

The Complete Syllabus

33

FOR STUDENT LEARNING

1

Appropriate Syllabus Items

The Graphic Syllabus

The Online ‘‘Living Syllabus’’

1

Understanding Your Students and How

Getting Students to Read Your Syllabus

They Learn

3

The Evolving Syllabus

Your Undergraduate Student Body Profile

How People Learn

How Structure Increases Learning

4

Your First Day of Class

43

The Cognitive Development of

Before the First Class

Undergraduates

First Impressions

Encouraging Cognitive Growth

Exchanging Information

Teaching the Millennial Generation

Social Icebreakers: Getting to Know You

The Adult Learner

Subject Matter Icebreakers

Inclusive Instructing

Drawing Class to a Close

The Challenge

5

Motivating Your Students

51

2

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

17

What We Know About Motivation in

Why Outcomes-Centered Course Design?

Learning

Writing Outcomes

Credible Theories of Motivation

Types of Learning Outcomes

Strategies for Motivating Students

Types of Cognitive Outcomes

Equity in the Classroom

vii

viii

CONTENTS

Part Two

10

Course Coordination Between Faculty and

MANAGING YOUR COURSES 61

Teaching Assistants

95

Before the Term: Course Review and Role

Specifications

6

Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

63

During the Term: Regular Meetings and

Where Copyright Does and Does Not Apply

Teaching Feedback

Common Copyright Misconceptions

Extending Managing to Mentoring

Free Use: Fair Use, Facts, and Public

Domain

Printed Text

Visual Materials

Part Three

In-Class Performances

CHOOSING AND USING

Recording Broadcast Programming

THE RIGHT TOOLS FOR

Online/Electronic Materials and Distance

TEACHING AND LEARNING 101

Learning

Obtaining Permission or a License

11

Matching Teaching Methods with

How Copyright Violations Are Actually

Learning Outcomes

103

Handled

Types of Tools

For Further and Future Reference

Dangerous Knowledge?

7

Preventing and Responding to Classroom

12

Making the Lecture a Learning

Incivility

71

Experience

113

What Is Incivility?

Purpose: To Lecture or Not to Lecture?

Why the Increase?

Preparing an Effective Lecture

Preventing Incivility: Your Classroom

Delivering an Effective Lecture

Persona

Incorporating Student-Active Breaks: The

Responding to Incivility

Interactive Lecture

Seeking Assistance

Teaching Students to Take Good Notes

Making the Lecture Effective for Everyone

8

Preserving Academic Integrity

83

How Prevalent Is Cheating?

Who Cheats, and Why?

13

Leading Effective Discussions

127

Detecting Cheating

When to Choose Discussion

Preventing Cheating

How to Set the Stage for Discussion

Honor Codes

How to Maximize Participation Through

Changing Student Values

Skillful Discussion Management

9

Making the Most of Office Hours

89

14

Questioning Techniques for Discussion and

Getting Students to See You

Assessment

137

Making the Time Productive

Questioning as a Process of Inquiry

Student-Active Tutoring

Typologies of Good Discussion Questions

Students in Academic or Emotional

Poor Questions for Discussion Purposes

Trouble

Turning the Tables

Contents

ix

15

Experiential Learning Activities

145

19

The Case Method

181

Student Presentation Formats

The Effectiveness of the Case Method

Role Playing

The Appropriate Subject Matter

Simulations and Games

What Makes a Good Case

Service-Learning: The Real Thing

Types of Cases

Debriefing Cases

16

Learning in Groups

155

A Postscript for Pioneers

A Group by Any Other Name . . .

The Case for Group Work

Changing Methods, Changing Roles

20

Problem-Based Learning

187

The Setup and Management of Student

How PBL Works

Groups

Good PBL Problems and Where to Find

Management Tips

Them

Tried-and-True Group Learning Strategies

The Effectiveness of PBL

Preparing Students for Life

What Students Think

Kudos for Creativity

17

Writing-to-Learn Activities and

Assignments

167

21

Quantitative Reasoning and Problem

Freewrites

Solving

193

The One-Minute Paper

Understanding Students’ Problems with

Journals

Problems

One-Sentence Summaries

Modeling Expert Reasoning

Learning Logs

Teaching the Steps of Problem Solving

Dialectical Notes

Tutoring Students out of Bad Habits

Directed Paraphrasing

Routinizing Peer Feedback

Letters, Memos, Notes, and Electronic

Making Problems More Real and

Posts

Challenging

Mock Tests

Using the Power of Group Learning

Drafts for Peer Feedback

Accommodating New Methods to

Multiple Purposes

Traditional Settings

Part Four

22

Problem Solving in the Sciences

199

MORE TOOLS: TEACHING

Where Science Education Falls Short

REAL-WORLD PROBLEM

How to Help Students Learn Science:

SOLVING

173

General Advice

How the Lecture Can Be Made into a

18

Inquiry-Guided Learning

175

Meaningful Learning Experience

Definitions of Inquiry-Guided Learning

How the Lab Can Be Made into a

The Effectiveness of Inquiry-Guided

Meaningful Learning Experience

Learning

The Essentials of Lab Safety and

Objects and Modes of Inquiry

Management

Variations of Inquiry-Based Learning

Why Science Education Is So Important

x

CONTENTS

Part Five

27

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

253

MAKING LEARNING

Reliable Low-Tech Tools for the Classroom

The Choice of High-Tech Alternatives

EASIER

209

Learning Management Systems

Lecture-Related Software

23

Getting Students to Do the Readings

211

Web Resources

Why Students Don’t Do the Readings

Laptops in the Wireless Classroom

How We Can Equip and Induce Students

Web 2.0 Tools

to Do the Readings

Looking Ahead

Specific Tools for Holding Students

Accountable

Managing Your Workload

Part Six

ASSESSING LEARNING

24

Teaching Your Students to Think and

OUTCOMES

271

Write in Your Discipline

223

Cross-Disciplinary Commonalities

28

Assessing Student Learning in Progress 273

Teaching Critical Thinking Through the

Classroom Assessment Techniques

Discipline’s Metacognitive Model

Formative Feedback

Metacognitive Differences Among

Student Portfolios

Disciplines

Extending Classroom Assessment to

Making Students Better Thinkers and

Classroom Research and the

Writers

Scholarship of Teaching and Learning

Teaching Students to Write for Their

Futures

29

Constructing Summative Assessments

281

The Many Worlds of Writing

General Testing Guidelines

Objective Test Items

25

Accommodating Different Learning

Constructed Response Instruments: Essay

Styles

229

Questions and Writing Assignments

Kolb’s Learning Styles Model and

Tests and Assignments: The Ultimate

Experiential Learning Theory

Teaching Evaluations

Fleming and Mills’s Sensory-Based

Learning Style Typology

30

Preparing Students for Tests

295

Felder and Silverman’s Index of

Test Preparation Measures

Learning Styles

Anxiety-Reduction Measures

Parallels Across Learning Style Models

What the Effort Is Worth

Multisensory, Multimethod Teaching: Most

Effective for All

31

Grading Summative Assessments

301

The Meaning of Grades

26

Using Visuals to Teach

239

Summative Assessments and Grading

Ways That Visuals Enhance Learning

Systems

Types of Visuals for Learning

The Qualities of a Sound Grading System

The Future of Visuals in Teaching and

Grading Constructed Responses and

Learning

Papers

Contents

xi

Grading Lab Reports

Student Evaluations

How to Grade Mechanics Quickly While

Peer, Administrative, and Self-Evaluations

Ensuring Students Learn Them

Documenting Your Effectiveness

Outcome-Based Grading

Comprehensive Approaches to Faculty

Returning Students’ Work

Evaluation

Helping Students Use Your Feedback to

Complex Beyond Measure

Improve

The Real Meaning and Limits of Grades

Appendix: Instructional Support and Resources

32

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching

at Your Institution

329

Effectiveness

315

References

335

Defining and Measuring Teaching

Index

367

Effectiveness

To Greg,

the man behind the woman

THE AUTHOR

Linda B. Nilson is the founding director of Clemson

internationally. Among her faculty development

University’s Office of Teaching Effectiveness and

activities was developing and directing the week-long Innovation. In addition to writing the first two

2008 Institute for Teaching and Learning in Higher

editions of Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Education, sponsored by the South Carolina Teach-Resource for College Instructors (1998, 2003), she has ing Excellence Network. Her workshop repertoire

authored The Graphic Syllabus and the Outcomes

spans every teaching and learning chapter in this

Map: Communicating Your Course (Jossey-Bass, 2007) book—course design and development, teaching

and edited a number of volumes: Enhancing Learning strategies for small and large classes, assessment, class-with Laptops in the Classroom (with Barbara E.

room management, and student evaluations—along

Weaver, Jossey-Bass, 2005) and Volumes 25 through

with career development topics, such as prepara-

28 of To Improve the Academy: Resources for Faculty, tion of a teaching philosophy, peer assessment of

Instructional, and Organizational Development (with teaching for promotion and tenure, early academic

Douglas Reimondo Robertson, Anker, 2007, 2008;

career management, faculty time management, and

with Judith E. Miller, Jossey-Bass, 2009, 2010). Her

scholarly writing and publishing.

other publications are articles and book chapters

Before coming to Clemson in 1998, Dr. Nilson

on teaching with learning objects and mind maps,

directed the Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt Uni-

designing a graphic syllabus, improving student-peer

versity and the Teaching Assistant Development Pro-

feedback, teaching large classes, getting students to gram at the University of California, Riverside. At

do the readings, critical thinking, scholarly writing the latter institution, she developed the disciplinary and publishing, and graduate student professional

cluster approach to training teaching assistants (TAs), development, along with book-length instructional

a cost-effective way for a centralized unit to provide handbooks for three universities. One of her papers

disciplinary-relevant instructional training. This ap-

(with Ernest N. Biktimirov) won the 2002 Financial

proach received coverage in the Chronicle of Higher Management Association Competitive Paper Award

Education, and she similarly structured TA training at in Financial Education.

Vanderbilt. Her entrée into educational development

Dr. Nilson presents faculty and graduate student

came in the late 1970s while she was on the sociol-

workshops and keynotes at colleges, universities,

ogy faculty at UCLA. After she distinguished herself

consortia, and conferences in the United States and

as an excellent instructor, her department selected her xv

xvi

THE AUTHOR

to establish its Teaching Assistant Training Program.

ucation. She has held leadership positions in the

She supervised it for four years, and it still follows her POD Network, the Southern Regional Faculty and

original organization. As a sociologist, she conducted Instructional Development Consortium, and Society

research in the areas of occupations and work, social for the Study of Social Problems, the Public Relations stratification, political sociology, and disaster behavior.

Society of America, Toastmasters International, and

Her career also included several years in the business Mensa.

world as a technical and commercial writer, a train-

A native of Chicago, Dr. Nilson was a National

ing workshop facilitator, and the business editor of a Science Foundation fellow at the University of Wis-southern California magazine.

consin, Madison, where she received her Ph.D. and

Dr. Nilson is active in the Professional and

M.S. degrees in sociology. She completed her un-

Organizational Development (POD) Network in

dergraduate work in three years at the University of

Higher Education, which honored her work with

California, Berkeley, where she was elected to Phi

the 2000 Innovation (Bright Idea) Award, and the

Beta Kappa.

Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Ed-

PREFACE

WhatevertheirCarnegieclassification,in- “popular”facultyweresuspect.Sowerethosewho stitutions with high standards of instruc-broached the subject of teaching enhancement with

tional excellence, in particular at the un-

their colleagues.

dergraduate level, should warmly welcome this third

This time was not a hundred years ago but more

edition, as so many did the first and second editions.

like thirty or forty. It was in this chilly environment It has been updated and expanded to serve the same

that Wilbert J. McKeachie was writing and publish-

audience of new and experienced instructors who are

ing the earliest editions of Teaching Tips. His was sincerely dedicated to learner-centered teaching at its the only book of its kind on the market. Of course,

best. They should find it useful whether they teach

the research literature on college teaching and learn-young, adult, or highly diverse students and whether

ing was sparse back then. Today that literature would they rely on traditional classroom or hybrid formats.

fill rooms, and Teaching Tips is in its twelfth edi-Liberal arts and community colleges as well

tion, with plenty of competition, including this book as other teaching-centered institutions have always

you are reading. College instructors across all types of promoted high standards of teaching excellence.

institutions now face a host of internal and external But time was that no one really cared much what

stakeholders; it seems that everyone cares about what instructors in more research-oriented universities

they do in the classroom and how they affect students.

did in the classroom, as long as it was legal. No

Who says the academy never changes?

one—not the students, their parents, colleagues, ad-

This book has gathered together the fruits of

ministrators, accrediting agencies, employers, or any these changes—literally thousands of research-based

levels of government—scrutinized a faculty member’s

methods, policies, and practices for being effective

teaching methods, which was usually straight lecture, in all aspects of teaching, course management, and

or sought evidence of student learning. Departments

assessment—and serves them in readily consumable

barely considered the quality of one’s teaching in

portions so you can confidently try them out in your

hiring, tenure, and promotion decisions. Of course,

next class.

some instructors deeply cared about their student

The research on college-level teaching is the

evaluations, but they usually were the ones who

foundation of and inspiration for this book. It has

received high ratings and grateful student comments.

blossomed into the fertile body of literature called the Otherwise they were rarely rewarded. In fact, these

scholarship of teaching and learning. It encompasses

xvii

xviii

PREFACE

not only the impact of different instructional methods addition, the second person facilitates presenting the and learning experiences on student achievement,

directions, rules, and formulas that some techniques

satisfaction, and knowledge retention, but also rec-

follow. My goal has been to demystify the method,

ommendations on how to implement these strategies

simplify the instructions, and equip you with a new

most successfully. Because few faculty have the time to tool right away.

keep abreast of this literature as well as their own dis-While preserving the most appreciated features

cipline, the concise summary of hundreds of teaching

of the second edition, this third edition incorporates options presented here is essential for time saving.

more and new material—from extensive updates of

You should use this book as a toolbox for both

every topic that new research has addressed to three

classroom and technology-enhanced instruction. The

brand-new chapters, plus a line-by-line editing to fur-tools include not only teaching methods and moves

ther improve the writing. I describe these changes for but also face-to-face and online activities and

each part of the book:

exercises, practices to enhance instructor-student rap-Part One, “Laying the Groundwork for Student

port, strategies to make learning easier, and guidelines Learning,” guides you through the tasks to complete

for designing and grading assignments and papers.

before the term begins. Understanding your students

With physical tools, you may have to find the right

and how they learn anchors all your plans, so it is

tool for the job. But you usually have the choice of

dealt with in the first chapter. The section on how

several right tools for a given teaching job, whatever people learn brings in more principles and findings

your goals for students. Therefore, I present plenty

from cognitive psychology, as well as their concrete

of alternatives. I avoid playing champion for certain implications for teaching. It is followed by a lengthy methods over others and the latest innovations over

new section on the importance of mental structure in

the tried-and-true. Rather, I present the how-to’s

learning, retention, and retrieval. Finally, another new and why-do’s for many teaching tools, along with

section addresses reaching and teaching the millennial their trade-offs, just as the research reports them, and generation. Along with updating the term learning ob-leave the choices to frontline faculty.

jectives to learning outcomes, Chapters Two and Three Guiding my decisions on the organization

on, respectively, course design and the syllabus add

and the writing style was my intention to write

Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s tax-

this book for people like you who don’t have time

onomy of cognitive operations, Fink’s six kinds of

to read a book. To ensure easy accessibility and

learning essential for creating “significant learning ex-allow rapid reading, the writing style is concise and periences,” and a section on developing an outcomes

informal, the paragraphs are relatively brief, most

map to show students the learning process you have

of the thirty-two chapters are short and generously

planned for them. The advice in Chapter Four for

subdivided into sections, and the Contents page is

your first class meeting adds preclass physical and vocal detailed with chapter section headings. In addition,

exercises for enhancing your persona and nonverbal

the six major parts are sequenced according to your

communication. Chapter Five on motivation greatly

likely chronological need for the material. Still, you expands the literature review, explicating four theo-can read the chapters in any order, and the text

ries of motivation and the evidence for them, and it

makes numerous cross-references to other chapters

offers more strategies for motivating students, most

that elaborate on a given subject. So you can casually of which must be planned into a course. Finally, the

browse, quickly locate specific topics, and skip over sections on inclusive teaching and equity in the class-the tools with which you are already familiar.

room offer many more ways to create fertile learning

I wrote this book in the second person and the

environments in diverse settings.

first-person plural. These writing conventions both

Part Two, “Managing Your Courses,” targets

personalize the text and make it easier to read. In

the administrative side of teaching: the copyright

Preface

xix

guidelines to follow, recommended course policies

opens this part. This completely new chapter

regarding student conduct and academic integrity,

explains the competing definitions of inquiry-guided

and the routines to establish for office hours and with learning, the evidence for its effectiveness, the best teaching assistants. All of the material on copyright practices in implementing it, possible objects and

is up-to-date, and the chapter on academic honesty

modes of inquiry, and all the many variations on

incorporates the latest incidence and prevalence

the inquiry-guided theme. Other new sections in

statistics, addresses electronic forms of cheating,

Part Four address peer assessment in quantitative

and examines the prospect of changing students’

problem solving, the principles of successful science values. Chapter Nine includes more novel ideas for

instruction, and an inspiring array of recent innova-

places and settings for office hours, and Chapter Ten tions in science education, all of which are inquiry

adds new literature on the faculty-teaching assistant guided, problem focused, collaborative, and more

relationship.

successful in promoting learning than the traditional Part Three, “Choosing and Using the Right

lecture. Some of these innovations call for minor

Tools for Teaching and Learning,” opens with a new

changes in the traditional lecture format, such as

chapter on selecting the teaching formats, methods,

peer instruction, the case method, problem-based

and moves that are known to help students achieve

learning, just-in-time-teaching, and experimental

specific cognitive outcomes. The rest of the chapters demonstrations, while others transform the entire

(and those in Part Four) describe well-researched

learning process—for example, the “studio course,”

instructional methods and lay out ground rules for

process-oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL),

setting up and managing them to ensure powerful

and student-centered active learning environment

learning experiences. The menu is extensive, varied,

for undergraduate programs (SCALE-UP). Research

and applicable across the disciplines. It also includes also finds that students similarly benefit from labs

many new topics: using clickers (that is, personal re-that require inductive reasoning to derive scientific sponse systems or classroom response systems) to add

principles and nonroutine problem solving.

interactive learning value to the lecture; teaching and Part Five, “Making Learning Easier,” groups

motivating students to take good lecture notes; foster-together types of assignments, class activities, skill ing civility and managing conflict during discussions; development lessons, ways of presenting material,

advancing discussion through Bloom’s hierarchy using

and technology applications that help ensure students a question template; posing Brookfield and Preskill’s learn and retain as much of your material as possible.

“momentum” questions; implementing academic

These strategies include ensuring students do the

games; designing and debriefing your own simula-

readings, explaining how your discipline thinks,

tions; acquainting students with small-group dynam-

teaching in different modes and media, adding visual

ics; integrating group processing and self-assessment learning aids, and using technologies—from the

into group work; and administering group tests.

traditional to the latest Web 2.0 tools—appropriately.

Part Four, “More Tools: Teaching Real-World

Chapter Twenty-Six on teaching with visuals is new.

Problem Solving,” extends the menu to major

First, it summarizes the research on how the brain

methods that help students acquire various problem-

processes graphic representations to learn and store

solving skills: to resolve the type of open-ended,

more knowledge. Then it provides everything you

realistic problems that good cases and problem-based

need to know to incorporate concept maps, mind

learning present; solve closed-ended quantitative

maps, and concept circle diagrams into your classes:

problems; and tackle challenging scientific questions how other faculty have used them successfully (re-in both lectures and labs. All of the methods covered search and examples), how you and your students can

fall under the general umbrella of inquiry-guided

create them, and how you can assess your students’

learning, the focus of Chapter Eighteen, which

products. Other chapters also present new material:

xx

PREFACE

ways to teach students how to read and comprehend

student evaluations offers additional analyses on what academic material; Felder and Silverman’s Index of

they actually measure, how instructor behaviors affect Learning Styles; the validity and reliability of learning them, how to interpret and improve them, and

style models; recent enhancements to learning

how they should and shouldn’t be used in personnel

management systems; updated research on the effects

decisions.

of posting presentation slides online; Web resources

If you are familiar with an earlier edition of this

for assignments and activities, including learning

book, you may also notice that the information on

objects; effective uses of podcasts and vodcasts; and the instructional support and resources that campuses the latest instructional applications of blogs, wikis, typically offer has been moved from the first chapter social networking tools, and Second Life.

to the appendix. In addition, many of the chapters

Finally, Part Six, “Assessing Learning Out-

now include Web addresses of particularly valuable

comes,” offers guidance first on assessing student

resources for you and your students.

learning through activities, tests, and assignments

I welcomed Jossey-Bass’s invitation to write this

and then on evaluating teaching effectiveness and

third edition and accepted it as an honor. But, of

documenting it for review. New material appears

course, it kept me at the computer after hours and

throughout the chapters on first-time topics: writing on weekends for over a year. My laptop became my

multiple true-false items for tests (and why you

faithful travel companion in many airports and on

should use them); developing objective test items to

many flights. Unfortunately, the writing and revising assess higher-order thinking skills; grading mechanics cut into precious time with loved ones, especially my quickly while making students learn them; using a

dear husband, Greg Bauernfeind. Yet he was my head

new version of contract grading to motivate students; cheerleader during the entire process of “eating the

and helping them use your feedback to improve (and

elephant.” He encouraged my efforts, celebrated my

why they don’t). Other topics have been expanded

progress, and took care of business on the home front.

or updated: formative feedback methods, ways to

I lovingly dedicate this edition to him.

prepare students for tests, techniques for grading essay questions and writing assignments, approaches to

Linda B. Nilson

writing a teaching philosophy, and the complexities

Clemson, South Carolina

of evaluating teaching. The lengthy section on

November 2009

TEACHING

AT ITS BEST

P A R T 1

LAYING THE

GROUNDWORK FOR

STUDENT LEARNING

C H A P T E R 1

Understanding Your Students

and How They Learn

Wheneverweprepareanoralpresentation,a Knowingbothwhoyourstudentsareandhow publication, or even a letter, the first issue

their minds learn is the starting point for teaching at we consider is our audience. The person

its best.

or people for whom we intend our message influence

our content, format, organization, sentence structure, and word choice. The same holds true in teaching.

YOUR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT

The nature of our students—their academic prepara-

BODY PROFILE

tion, aspirations, and cognitive development—affects

our choices of what and how to teach. We need to

If you’re not already familiar with your student

think of our job not as teaching art, biology, English, audience, or your experience tells you that its com-history, math, psychology, and so on but as teaching

position has changed, your institution’s admissions or students.

student affairs office can provide the type of student Yet another consideration, this one unique

data you need. At a minimum, you should find out

to teaching, is how the human mind learns. For

the distributions and percentages on these variables: any given subset of knowledge, some types and

age; marital and family status; socioeconomic back-

styles of delivery are simply more effective means of ground; race and ethnicity; full-time and part-time

communication than others—that is, they make it

employed; campus residents versus commuters; native

easier for people to attend to, grasp, and remember.

versus international; geographical mix; and special

Yet in spite of the fact that we are all responsible for admissions. If your students are primarily young,

encouraging human minds to learn, it seems that

on-campus residents, for instance, you can afford to

only cognitive or educational psychologists know

make more collaborative out-of-class assignments.

how the human mind works.

You might also benefit from finding out about the

3

4

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

leadership positions and activities that individuals in already know and believe (Bransford et al., 1999;

a given class engaged in when they were in high

Tigner, 1999).

school.

•

People learn what they regard as relevant to their

You also need to know your students’ level of

lives (Svinicki, 2004).

academic preparation and achievement. You can assess

•

People learn socially by constructing knowledge

your institution’s selectivity by comparing the num-

in a group (Stage, Kinzie, Muller, & Simmons,

ber of applicants each year with the number of those

1999), but they otherwise learn one-on-one and

accepted (a two-to-one ratio or above is highly se-

on their own (Spence, 2001).

lective). For each entering class, you can find out

•

People learn when they are motivated to do so

about its average scholastic test scores (SATs, ACTs), by the inspiration and enthusiasm of other people

the percentage ranked at varying percentiles of their in their lives (Feldman, 1998b).

high school graduating classes, the percentage of Na-

•

People don’t learn well when their major learning

tional Merit and National Achievement Finalists (over context is teacher centered—that is, when they

5 percent is high), and the percentage that qualified passively listen to a teacher talk. Rather, they learn for Advanced Placement credit (over a third is high).

when they are actively engaged in an activity, a life For several hundred American colleges and universi-experience. The human brain can’t focus for long

ties, almost all of this information is published every when it is in a passive state (Bligh, 2000; Bonwell

summer in the “America’s Best Colleges” issue of

& Eison, 1991; Hake, 1998; Jones-Wilson, 2005;

U.S. News & World Report.

McKeachie, 2002; Spence, 2001; Svinicki, 2004).

Another question you might want to answer is

•

People learn best when they receive the new ma-

where your students are headed in life. Your institu-

terial multiple times but in different ways—that is,

tion’s career center should have on file the percentage through multiple senses and modes that use differ-of students planning on different types of graduate and ent parts of their brain (Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & professional educations, as well as the immediate em-Charalampos, 2006; Tulving, 1985; Vekiri, 2002).

ployment plans of the next graduating class. Often de-

•

People learn when they actively monitor their

partments and colleges collect follow-up data on what learning and reflect on their performance—a

their students are doing a few years after graduation.

mental operation called metacognition or self-regulated learning (Bransford et al., 1999).

HOW PEOPLE LEARN

•

Relatedly, people learn less by reviewing material

and more from being tested or testing themselves

Whatever your student body profile, certain well-

on it, as the latter involves greater cognitive pro-

researched principles about how people learn will

cessing and practice retrieving (Dempster, 1996,

apply:

1997; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).

•

People learn better when the material evokes

•

People are born learners, beginning from infancy

emotional and not just intellectual or physical

with an insatiable curiosity and an increasing

involvement. In other words, a lasting learning

awareness of their learning. They absorb and

experience must be moving enough to make the

remember untold billions of details about objects,

material memorable or to motivate people to

other people, their language, and things they

want to learn it. This learning pattern mirrors

know how to do (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,

the biological basis of learning, which is the close

1999; Spence, 2001).

communication between the frontal lobes of the

•

People learn through elaborative rehearsal, which

brain and the limbic system. From a biological

means connecting new knowledge to what they

point of view, learning entails a change in the

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

5

brain: the establishment of desirable new synapses

•

Teach in multiple modalities. Give students the

(Leamnson, 1999, 2000; Mangurian, 2005).

opportunities to read, hear, talk, write, see, draw,

think, act, and feel new material into their system.

These key learning principles have some com-

In other words, involve as many senses and parts

plementary teaching principles, and they echo

of the brain as possible in your teaching and their

through the rest of this book:

learning. If, as is commonplace, the students are

reading or listening to the material, have them take

•

Hold your students to high expectations. But be

notes on it, discuss it in pairs or groups, concept-

reasonable, and don’t use yourself as the standard.

or mind-map it, freewrite about it, solve problems

Very few students will learn your field as quickly

with it, complete a classroom assessment exercise

as you did or choose the life of the mind as

on it, or take a quiz on it.

you have.

•

Teach your students how to learn your material,

•

Start where your students are. Find out what they

and build in assignments that make them observe,

already know and don’t know and what they be-

analyze, and assess how well they are learning.

lieve to be true, and become familiar with

•

Build into your course plenty of assessment

their lifestyles. Then relate the new content,

opportunities, including low-stakes quizzes, prac-

skills, and abilities you are helping them learn to

tice tests, in-class exercises, and homework

what is familiar to them, both cognitively and

assignments that can tell students how much they

experientially. Use examples and analogies out of

are really learning, as well as provide them with

their lives and their generational experience.

retrieval practice.

•

Make the material relevant to the students’

•

Motivate and reinforce learning with emotions.

lives, which for today’s concrete learners means

Make a learning experience dramatic, humorous,

connecting your material to their day-to-day

surprising, joyous, maddening, exciting, or heart-

experience, future careers, or real-world problems.

wrenching. Integrate engaging cases and problems

•

Demonstrate enthusiasm and passion for your

to solve, simulations and games, role plays,

subject and for teaching it, as these are conta-

service-learning, and other experiential learning

gious emotions. If these don’t come naturally to

opportunities into your courses. Let students

you, learn how to use your voice and body to con-

reflect, debate, consider multiple points of view,

vey them.

write down their reactions to the material, and

•

Assign creative, inventive, and challenging tasks to

work cooperatively in groups. Any emotion

small groups and more routine learning tasks, such

will aid learning by inducing more enduring

as first-exposure reading and standard problem

changes—that is, the generation of new, lasting

sets, as individual homework. Some students will

synapses—in the brain.

need tutoring after their individual attempts at

learning, which you, a teaching assistant (TA),

or group members can provide. Reflection and

HOW STRUCTURE INCREASES

writing are also individual learning activities, even LEARNING

though they can be very challenging and creative.

•

Use active learning techniques, and when you do

Structure is so key to how people learn and has such

lecture, do so interactively—that is, with frequent

far-reaching implications for teaching that it deserves breaks for student activities.

an entire section of its own. In fact, without it, there

•

When possible, use experiential methods: those

is no knowledge.

that place students in real-life problem-solving

Students are always talking about “information”

situations, simulated or genuine.

when they refer to what they are learning. After

6

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

all, this is the “information age,” and abundant

big picture of the patterns, generalizations, and ab-

information is constantly available. It’s a snap to find stractions that experts recognize so clearly. As a result, people’s phone numbers, the capitals of countries,

they have trouble figuring out how to classify and

the years of events, directions from one place to

approach problems at the conceptual level (Arocha & another, an area’s major industries, economic figures, Patel, 1995; DeJong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1996).

political leaders, and election results, to name just a Without that big picture, students face another

few common pieces of information. But all of these

learning hurdle as well. The mind processes, stores,

are only facts: isolated bits of information that do not and retrieves knowledge not as a collection of

add up to any generalizations or conclusions about

facts but as a logically organized whole, a coherent

the way the world works.

conceptual framework, with interconnected parts.

What isn’t so available is knowledge, that is,

In fact, it requires a big picture. That framework is organized bodies of knowledge, which is what we

what prior knowledge is all about. New material

academics have to offer that information-packed

is integrated not into an aggregate of facts and terms websites do not. Knowledge is a structured set of

but into a preexisting structure of learned knowledge.

patterns that we have identified through observation, Without having a structure of the material in their

followed by reflection and abstraction—a grid

heads, students fail to comprehend and retain new

that we have carefully superimposed on a messy

material (Anderson, 1984; Bransford et al., 1999;

world so we can make predictions and applications

Rhem, 1995; Svinicki, 2004).

(Kuhn, 1970). Knowledge comprises useful concepts,

The mind structures knowledge based on

agreed-on generalizations, well-grounded inferences,

patterns and relationships it recognizes across ob-

strongly backed theories, reasonable hypotheses,

servations. In fact, it is driven to generalize about and and well-tested principles and probabilties. With-simplify reality. If it did not, we would experience

out knowledge, science and advanced technology

repetitive events as novel every time they occurred

wouldn’t exist.

and would learn and remember nothing from them.

Unfortunately, our students come to our

No doubt, we would find reality too complex to op-

courses, and usually leave them, viewing our ma-

erate within and would perish. Animals too have the

terial as a bunch of absolute, disconnected facts,

need and capacity to recognize patterns. They learn to supplemented by technical terms—about as well

obtain what they need and survive not just by instinct organized, meaningful, and memorable as a phone

but by learning—for instance, learning to hide, judge book. These facts and “things” were out there. Hu-distances, time their strikes, and fool their prey—and man beings “discovered” them; we didn’t construct

they get better with practice. The behaviorists call

them. From this perspective, memorization is the

learning by pattern recognition operant conditioning, only learning strategy that makes sense.

and they have demonstrated that mammals, birds,

Students are not stupid; they are simply novices

reptiles, and probably fish learn this way.

in our discipline. They lack a solid base of prior

Human thinking is so wired to seek and build

knowledge and may harbor misconceptions and

structure that we make up connections to fill in the

faulty models about the subject matter (Svinicki,

blanks in our understanding of phenomena if we

2004). Being unable to identify the central, core condon’t already have a complete explanatory “theory”

cepts and principles (Kozma, Russell, Jones, Marx,

handy. Some of these made-up connections that pan

& Davis, 1996), they wander somewhat aimlessly

out under scrutiny are elevated to science. Charles

through a body of knowledge, picking up and mem-

Darwin, for example, did not observe mutations

orizing what may or may not be important facts and

happening in nature; rather, he hypothesized their

terms and using trial-and-error to solve problems and occurrence to fill in the explanatory blanks for species answer questions (Glaser, 1991). They do not see the

diversity. No one was around to watch the big bang,

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

7

but the theory fills in quite a few missing links in

Glaser, & Rees, 1982; Reif & Heller, 1982; Royer, cosmology. Astronomers have never observed what

Cisero & Carlo, 1993). Only then will the student they believe to make up 30 percent of the universe:

have the structure on which to accumulate additional

dark matter. This term refers to undetectable matter

knowledge. By their very nature, knowledge struc-

or particles that are hypothesized to account for

tures must be hierarchical to distinguish the more

unexpected gravitational effects on galaxies and

general and core concepts and propositions from the

stars. Scientists have inferred its existence to explain condition specific and derivative. Experts move up

anomalies in calculations of the total mass of a galaxy and down this hierarchy with ease.

cluster. In these calculations, the total mass of the What are the odds that a learner will develop

composite galaxies can be determined by compar-

such a structure of knowledge on his or her own in

ing their dynamic mass (dispersion speeds) with

a few weeks, months, or even years? How long did

their luminous mass, which is calculated from the

it take us? Most, if not all, of our time in graduate amount of light the cluster emits. These two measure-school—or longer? People require years of specialized ments of total mass should be similar, but the dynamic study and apprenticeship to internalize the structure mass, which is affected by gravity, is often hundreds of the discipline and become expert. Unfortunately,

of times larger than the luminous mass. Dark matter

many, if not most, of our students pass through our

“explains” this otherwise inexplicable finding.

discipline for only a term or two—not nearly enough

Not all imagined connections, however, stand

time to notice its patterns and hierarchical structure.

the test of time or science. Superstitions and prejudice Yet without having a mental structure for organiz-exemplify false patterns. The belief of many people,

ing what they learn, they process our course content

including many of our students, that one’s intelligence superficially and quickly forget it. Is it not our re-is fixed and immutable also fails under careful study.

sponsibility as teaching experts to help our students Faculty are now recognizing and beginning

acquire a structure quickly, so our short time with

to address the misconceptions about natural and

them is not wasted? Should we not make the organi-

social phenomena that students bring into their

zation of our knowledge explicit by providing them

science and social science courses. Consider the

an accurate, ready-made structure for making sense of now-classic videotape, A Private Univers e (Schneps & our content and storing it?

Sadler, 1988). It dramatically shows that Harvard gra-What then are the complementary teaching

duates and even professors carry around incorrect

principles to the central role that structure plays in theories about the causes of the seasons and the

learning?

phases of the moon if they have not deep-processed

the scientific explanation. It also shows that a sharp,

•

Very early in the term, give students activities and

young, presumably open mind has a hard time

assignments that make them retrieve, articulate,

abandoning and replacing a flawed but familiar

and organize what they already know (or think

explanatory structure with a new and better one.

they know) about your course material. Then

The new one has to be easy to grasp, plausible, more

identify any evident misconceptions and address

useful, and convincing enough to make the learner

in class how and why they are wrong.

see the failures of the old one (Baume & Baume,

•

Again,

very

early,

give

students

the

big

2008; Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982).

picture—the

overall

organization

of

your

The kind of deep, meaningful learning that

course content. The clearest way to show this

moves a student from novice toward expert is all

is in a graphic syllabus (see Chapter Three).

about acquiring the discipline’s hierarchical organi-

Carry through by presenting your content as an

zation of patterns, its mental structure of knowledge integrated whole, that is, as a cohesive system of

(Alexander, 1996; Anderson, 1993; Carey, 1985; Chi,

interpreting phenomena—not as an aggregate of

8

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

small, discrete facts and terms. Keep referring

of the material. Such visuals are powerful learning

back to how and where specific topics fit into

aids because they provide a ready-made, easy-

that big picture.

to-process structure for knowledge. In addition,

•

Give students the big picture of their learning pro-

the very structures of graphics themselves supply

cess for the term—that is, the logical sequencing

retrieval cues (Svinicki, 2004; Vekiri, 2002).

of your learning outcomes for them. A flowchart

Chapter Twenty-Six deals with this topic in more

of the student learning process for a course is called detail.

an outcomes map (see Chapter Two).

•

Help students see the difference between informa-

tion and knowledge. The previous discussion of

THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

the topic, as well as the next section of this chapter, OF UNDERGRADUATES

supplies some useful concepts and vocabulary for

explaining the difference.

No matter how bright or mature your students may

•

Teach students the critical thinking struc-

be, do not expect them to have reached a high level

tures that your discipline uses—for example,

of cognitive maturity in your discipline. Almost all

the scientific method, the diagnostic pro-

students, especially freshmen and sophomores, begin

cess, the rules of rhetoric, basic logic (the nature

a course of study with serious misconceptions about

of fact, opinion, interpretation, and theory), and

knowledge in general and the discipline specifically.

logical fallacies. Where applicable, acquaint them

Adult learners are no exception. Only as these

with the competing paradigms (metatheories) in

misconceptions are dispelled do students mature

your field, such as the rational versus the symbolic

intellectually through distinct stages. As an instructor, interpretive versus the postmodern perspectives in

you have the opportunity—some would say the

English literature, pluralism versus elitism in po-

responsibility—to lead them through these stages to

litical science, functionalism versus conflict theory epistemological maturity.

in sociology, and positivism (or empiricism) versus

Psychologist William G. Perry (1968, 1985)

phenomenology in social science epistemology.

formulated a theory of the intellectual and ethical

•

Design exercises for your students in pattern

development of college students. In its simple four-

recognition and categorical chunking to help

stage version, students begin college with a dualistic them process and manage the landslide of new

perspective and may, depending on their instruction,

material. These thinking processes will help them

advance through the stages of multiplicity, relativism, identify conceptual similarities, differences, and

and commitment (definitions are given below).

interrelationships while reducing the material

The research supporting it accumulated rapidly,

to fewer, more manageable pieces. The fewer

making Perry’s the leading theory on the cognitive

independent pieces of knowledge the mind has

development of undergraduates. Baxter Magolda’s

to learn, the more knowledge it can process and

(1992) four levels of knowing—absolute, transitional, retain. Cognitively speaking, less is more.

independent,

and

contextual—roughly

parallel

•

In addition to showing your students a graphic

Perry’s, with most females following a relational

syllabus and outcome map of your course, furnish

pattern and most males the abstract. Table 1.1 displays them with graphic representations of theories,

both models.

conceptual interrelationships, and knowledge

While Perry’s framework of development ap-

schemata—such as concept maps, mind maps,

plies across disciplines, a student’s level of maturity diagrams, flowcharts, comparison-and-contrast

may be advanced in one and not in another. So we

matrices, and the like—and then have them

shouldn’t assume, for example, that a sophisticated se-develop their own to clarify their understanding

nior in a laboratory science major has a comparable

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

9

Table 1.1

Stages/Levels of Student Cognitive Development

Perry’s Stages of Undergraduate Cognitive Development Baxter Magolda’s Levels of Knowing

3. Relativism: All opinions equal

Independent Knowing

• Standards of comparison

1. Duality: Black and white thinking; authorities rule Absolute Knowing

• Uncertainty

2. Multiplicity: Poor authorities or temporary state

Transitional Knowing

• Uncertainty as legimate, inherent

4. Commitment (tentative) to best theory available

Contextual Knowing

understanding of the nature of knowledge in the so-

them to be just an instructor’s exercise designed ulticial sciences or the humanities.

mately to lead them to the one true answer. As they

The more elaborate version of Perry’s theory

advance to position 3, they accept the notion that

posits nine positions through which students pass

genuine uncertainty exists, but only as a temporary

on their way to cognitive maturity. (The stages in

state that will resolve itself once an authority finds Perry’s simpler model are italicized.) How far and

the answer.

how rapidly students progress through the hierarchy,

Entering position 4, which marks the broader

if at all, depend largely on the quality and type

stage of relativism, students make an about-face and of instruction they receive. It is this flexible aspect of abandon their faith in the authority’s ability to iden-Perry’s theory that has made it particularly attractive tify “the truth.” At this point, they either consider all and useful. The schema suggests ways that we can

views equally valid or allow different opinions within accelerate undergraduates’ intellectual growth.

the limits delineated by some standard. In brief, they Let us begin with position 1, the cognitive state

become relativists with no hope of there ever being

in which most first-years arrive. (Of course, many

one true interpretation or answer.

sophomores, juniors, and seniors are still at this level.) Students at position 5 formalize the idea that

Perry used the term dualism to describe students’

all knowledge is relativistic and contextual, but with thinking at this stage because they perceive the world qualifications. They may reserve dualistic ideas of

in black-and-white simplicity. They decide what to

right and wrong as subordinate principles for special believe and how to act according to absolute standards cases in specific contexts. Thus, even in a relativistic of right and wrong, good and bad, truth and false-world, they may permit certain instances where facts

hood. Authority figures, like instructors, supposedly are truly facts and only one plausible truth exists.

know and teach the absolute truths about reality. Fur-At some point, however, students can no longer

thermore, all knowledge and goodness can be quan-

accommodate all the internal inconsistencies and am-

tified or tallied, like correct answers on a spelling test.

biguities inherent in position 5. They may want to

At position 2, students enter the general cog-

make choices but often lack clear standards for doing nitive stage of multiplicity. They come to realize that so. As a result, they begin to feel the need to ori-since experts don’t know everything there is to know, ent themselves in their relativistic world by making

a discipline permits multiple opinions to compete

some sort of personal commitment to one stance or

for acceptance. But to students, the variety merely

another. As this need grows, they pass through posi-

reflects that not all authorities are equally legitimate tion 6 and into the more general cognitive stage of

or competent. Some students don’t even give these

commitment. When they actually make an initial, ten-competing opinions much

credence, believing

tative commitment to a particular view in some area,

10

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

they attain position 7. Next, at position 8, they expe-Our next step is to help students advance

rience and examine the impacts and implications of

beyond relativism through positions 6 and 7, at

their choice of commitment. That is, they learn what

which point they can make tentative commitments

commitment means and what trade-offs it carries.

and progress toward cognitive maturity. To do so,

Finally, at position 9, students realize that trying

students need to understand that among all the pos-

on a commitment and either embracing or modify-

sible answers and interpretations, some may be more

ing it in the hindsight of experience is a major part valid than others. They must also learn why some

of personal and intellectual growth. This process is, are better than others—that is, what criteria exist to in fact, a lifelong activity that paves the road toward discriminate among the options, to distinguish the

wisdom and requires an ever open mind.

wheat from the chaff.

Disciplines vary on their criteria for evaluating

validity. Each has its own metacognitive model—that ENCOURAGING COGNITIVE

is, a set of accepted conventions about what makes

GROWTH

a sound argument and what constitutes appropriate

evidence. Most students have trouble acquiring these

Nelson (2000), a leading authority on developing

conventions on their own; they tend to assume that

thinking skills, contends that we can facilitate stu-

the rules are invariable across fields. So Nelson ad-

dents’ progress through these stages by familiarizing vises us to make our concepts of evidence and our

them with the uncertainties and the standards of

standards for comparison explicit to our students.

comparison in our disciplines. He and many others

By the time students reach position 5, they are

(Allen, 1981, in the sciences, for example) have

uncomfortable with their relativism, and by position

achieved excellent results by implementing his ideas.

6, they are hungry for criteria on which to rank

(Kloss, 1994, offers a somewhat different approach

options and base choices. So they should be highly

tailored to literature instructors.)

receptive to a discipline’s evaluative framework.

Exposure to uncertainties in our knowledge

To encourage students to reach positions 7 and

bases helps students realize that often there is no one 8, we can provide writing and discussion opportu-superior truth, nor can there be, given the nature of nities for them to deduce and examine what their

rational knowledge. This realization helps lead them

initial commitments imply in other contexts. They

out of dualistic thinking (position 1) and through

may apply their currently preferred framework to a

multiplistic conceptions of knowledge (positions 2

new or different ethical case, historical event, social and 3). Once they can understand uncertainty as

phenomenon, political issue, scientific problem, or

legitimate and inherent in the nature of knowledge,

piece of literature. They may even apply it to a real they can mature into relativists (positions 4 and 5).

situation in their own lives. Through this process, they Instructive examples of such uncertainties

begin to realize that a commitment focuses options,

include the following: (1) the range of viable in-

closing some doors while opening others.

terpretations that can be made of certain works of

We should remind students that they are always

literature and art; (2) the different conclusions that free to reassess their commitments, modify them,

can be legitimately drawn from the same historical

and even make new ones, but with an intellec-

evidence and scientific data; (3) a discipline’s history tual and ethical caveat: they should have sound

of scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts; (4)

reason to do so, such as new experiences or data or a unresolved issues on which a discipline is currently

more logical organization of the evidence—not just

conducting research; and (5) historical and scientific personal convenience. With a clear understanding of

unknowns that may or may not ever be resolved.

this final point, students achieve position 9.

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

11

Bringing Perry’s and Nelson’s insights into our

This

generation comprises children born

courses presents a genuine challenge in that students between 1982 (some say 1980) and 1995 to the late

in any one class may be at different stages, even if they baby boomers. These parents kept their children’s

are in the same graduating class. Almost all first-year lives busily structured with sports, music lessons, club students fall in the first few positions, but juniors and meetings, youth group activities, and part-time jobs.

seniors may be anywhere on the hierarchy. It may be

In their spare time, young millennials spent many

wisest, then, to help students at the lower positions hours on the computer, often the Internet, interact-catch up with those at the higher ones by explicitly

ing with peers, doing school work, playing games,

addressing knowledge uncertainties and disciplinary

shopping, and otherwise entertaining themselves.

criteria for selecting among perspectives and creating Unless they attended private or college-town schools, opportunities for students to make and justify choices they received a weaker K–12 education than previous

in your courses.

generations. Still, they flooded into colleges and

Keep your students’ cognitive growth in mind as

universities starting around 2000. Their combined

you read this book. If you use the outcomes-centered

family and school experience, along with their heavy

approach to designing a course (see Chapter Two),

mass media exposure, made them self-confident,

you may want to select a certain level of cognitive

extremely social, technologically sophisticated, action maturity as a learning outcome for your students.

bent, goal oriented, service or civic minded, and

You will find more strategies for teaching

accustomed to functioning as part of a team. On

uncertainty and alternative explanations in later

the flip side, they are also impatient, demanding,

chapters. Chapter Twenty-Four on teaching your

stressed out, sheltered, brand oriented, materialis-

students to think and write in disciplinary contexts

tic, and self-centered. They use—and abuse—alcohol

revisits the notion of metacognitive models and

and prescription drugs more than street drugs.

examines some crucial differences in argumentation

Although skeptical about authority, they tend not to

and evidence across major disciplinary groups.

be particularly rebellious, violent, or promiscuous.

With so much activity in their lives as well as

frequent interaction with friends and family (much

TEACHING THE MILLENNIAL

on computers and cell phones), they have little

GENERATION

time or inclination for reflection, self-examination, or free-spirited living. Another feature of this

If you are teaching traditional-age students, you

generation, one that distinguishes it from so many

need to know some basics about this generation,

preceding ones, is that millennials do not hunger for which has come to be called generation Y, the

independence from their parents. Quite the contrary,

Net generation, the NeXt generation, and most

they stay close to the parents through college (and

commonly, the millennial generation. A great deal

often beyond) and turn to their parents for help when has been written about it, and this section provides

organizations don’t meet their needs. These parents

a quick synthetic summary (Bureau & McRoberts,

have earned the descriptor of “helicopter parents” for 2001; Carlson, 2005; Featherstone, 1999; Frand,

hovering over their grown children to ensure their

2000; Hersch, 1998; Howe & Strauss, 2000; Levine

well-being and competitive advantage in life.

& Cureton, 1998; Lowery, 2001; Nathan, 2005;

For college faculty, this generation can be

Oblinger, 2003; Plotz, 1999; Raines, 2002; Strauss

challenging to deal with. Millennials view higher

& Howe, 2003; Taylor, 2006; Tucker, 2006). The

education as an expensive but economically necessary

generalizations seem to apply to at least the bulk of consumer good, not a privilege earned by hard work

middle- and upper-middle-class millennials.

and outstanding performance. They (or their parents)

12

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

“purchase” it for the instrumental purpose of opening are subject to being disciplined or even fired at

well-paying occupational doors on graduation, so

administrative will and that institutions want to retain they feel entitled to their degree for the cost of

students and keep them happy. In this quasi-corporate the credits. As many of them did little homework

model, the customer is always right, whether she is or for their good grades through high school, they

not. So millennials can be demanding, discourteous,

anticipate the same minimal demands in college and

impatient, time-consuming, and energy sapping.

are often resentful about the amount of reading,

For the same reason, colleges and universities have

research, problem solving, and writing that we

been upgrading their residence halls, food services,

assign them and about the standards that we hold

recreational and workout facilities, tutoring pro-

for their work. Those whose grades slip in college

grams, computing, and teaching (with an eye toward

feel their self-esteem threatened and may react with

boosting student ratings).

depression, anxiety, defensiveness, and even anger

Despite the difficulties millennials may present,

against us. In addition, they hear a lot a “bad news”

this generation can be easy to reach if we make a few from us in their classes: that they didn’t learn enough adjustments. After all, they have career goals, positive in high school to handle college, that knowledge

attitudes, technological savvy, and collaborative incli-bases are full of holes and unsolved mysteries, that

nations. In addition, they are intelligent enough to

their beliefs and values are subject to question and

have learned a lot, even if it is not the knowledge that debate, and that both college and the real world

we value. Our adjustments need not include lowering

demand that they work and prove their worth.

our own standards.

Not only are we bearers of bad news, how-

Although millennials are understandably cynical

ever inadvertently, but we are also very different

about authority (so are we) and don’t assume we have

from them and difficult to fathom and identify with.

their best interests at heart, they value communication We prize the life of the mind, we love to read, and we and information and respond well when we explain

work long hours for relatively little money. We must

why we use the teaching and assessment methods we

remember that this generation values money and

do. We can “sell” them on the wisdom of our reading

what it can buy. Aside from the materialism that their selections, assignments, in-class activities, and rubrics, parents and the mass media promoted, these young

reinforcing the fact that we are the experts in our field people face the prospect of being the first generation, and in teaching it. As experts, we should have solid, at least in the United States, that cannot afford a

research-based reasons for our choices. Why not show

standard of living comparable to that of their parents, our students the respect of sharing these reasons?

let alone higher. So while some observers call

Millennials also want to know that we care

millennials hopeful, others point to their economic

about them. Remember that they are still attached to

anxiety (Levine & Cureton, 1998).

their parents and not far from the nest. They are also In any case, our modest material status, coupled

accustomed to near-constant interaction, so they do

with all our education, does not inspire a great deal of want to relate to us. Showing that we care about their their respect. To them, we render customer service,

learning and well-being—by calling them by name,

a somewhat menial calling, to a society that doesn’t

asking them about their weekend, promising we will

value abstraction, intellectual discourse, or knowledge do whatever it takes to help them learn, stating how

for knowledge’s sake. There’s just no money in them.

much we want them to be successful, and voicing

Therefore, if they are dissatisfied with our services our high expectations of them—will go very far in

(usually workload, grades, or our responsiveness to

earning their loyalty and trust.

their desires), they complain to our “bosses,” often

Finally, having led a tightly organized child-

involving their parents to bolster their power. They

hood and adolescence and not being rebellious,

sense they have the upper hand: that instructors

they respond well to structure, discipline, rules, and

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

13

regulations. If you set up or have them set up a

and know something about how to do it, even

code of classroom conduct (see Chapter Seven),

if they are also materialistic, tied to their parents, they will generally honor it. If you promise that you and on Facebook. While we can generalize about

will answer their email at two specific times each

millennials, we must not forget that they are the most day and you follow through, they will not expect you

diverse generation—economically, politically, ethni-

to be available 24/7. Whatever course policies your

cally, racially, and culturally—that North American

syllabus states, as long as they are clear and airtight, institutions of higher learning have ever welcomed.

the students will generally respect them, though a

few may try to pressure you to bend your rules. Even

their parents will usually withdraw their demands for THE ADULT LEARNER

grade information if you clearly explain any applica-

ble restrictions under the Family Educational Rights

Adults learn the same way as traditional-age students, and Privacy Act. What millennials consider unprofes-but they respond somewhat differently to certain

sional is an instructor’s (apparent) disorganization, ill instructor behaviors, teaching strategies, and content preparation, or inability to stick to her own syllabus.

emphases. They are less forgiving about an instruc-

Of course, blanket statements about an entire

tor’s shortage of experience, expertise, teaching

generation always apply to only a portion of its

savvy, and suitable supplementary materials. For good members. Biggs (2003) has another take on it. He

reason, they value their own life experience and

describes an undergraduate profile applicable to

want to share and apply it in class, assignments, and both the British Commonwealth nations and the

group work. They know the world to be complex,

United States, and he puts a face on it—two faces,

and therefore they expect to learn multiple ways of

actually. There is “Susan,” the archetypal “good”

solving problems and to have discretion in applying

student—intelligent, well prepared, goal oriented,

the material. They need the opportunity for reflec-

and motivated to master the material. Susan came

tion after trying out a new application or method.

to college with solid thinking, writing, and learning Rote learning just won’t work with them. Finally,

skills. While about three-quarters of today’s college adult learners are practical and usually quite disinter-students were like her in 1980, only about 42 percent ested in theory. They demand that the materials have

are like her today (Brabrand & Andersen, 2006). The immediate utility and relevant application (Aslanian, rest (almost 60 percent) are like “Robert,” who is

2001; Vella, 1994; Wlodkowski, 1993). None of this

much less academically talented, college ready, and

implies that they are difficult learners. In fact, they motivated to learn (Brabrand & Andersen). He just are often highly motivated, eagerly participatory, and wants to get by with the least amount of learning

well prepared for class.

effort so he can parlay his degree into a decent job.

He will rely on memorizing the material rather than

reflecting on and constructing it. “Good teaching,”

INCLUSIVE INSTRUCTING

according to Biggs, is “getting most students to use

the higher cognitive level processes that the more

Age is but one variable on which students vary.

academic students use spontaneously” (p. 5)—that is,

Add gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, sexual

changing Roberts into Susans.

orientation, and religion. Time was when only well-

When you divide the student population the

to-do white males attended college in the United

way Biggs does, the millennial generation doesn’t

States. But now over 60 percent of all undergraduates look so monolithic, and no matter where we teach,

are female, and in 2003–2004, only 63.7 percent

we find both types of students in our classes. A

were white, 14.1 percent African American, 11.9

sizable minority of them are interested in learning

percent Hispanic, 5.4 percent Asian American,

14

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

0.9 percent Native American, 0.5 percent Pacific

(Anderson & Adams). How closely and easily

Islander, and 2.1 percent multiracial. In addition, 11.3

you relate to your diverse and female students

percent had a disability (“Profile of Undergraduate

will strongly affect their motivation to learn,

Students, 2003–4,” 2007).

their trust in your intentions for them, and their

While all people learn by the same basic

overall satisfaction with college (Allen, Epps, & processes described earlier, some of these groups

Haniff, 1991; Gonsalves, 2002; Grant-Thompson

educationally thrive under circumstances that are

& Atkinson, 1997; Kobrak, 1992; Nettles, 1988).

not always typical in the American classroom. In

•

Be aware that most international students stand

addition, they often share distinctive values, norms, physically closer to others than do Americans, that

background experiences, and a sense of community

many Asian American women are taught to avoid

that set them apart and make them feel set apart—and

eye contact, and that many Asian Americans and

not always in a positive way. Traditionally underrepre-Native Americans have learned to listen quietly

sented groups are more likely to struggle emotionally rather than jumping into discourse.

in college and to leave before attaining a degree.

•

Don’t avoid course-appropriate topics related

As an instructor, you are also an ambassador

to diverse groups because they are sensitive,

of the academy to these groups, and you are close

controversial, or applicable to only a minority of

enough to them to reach out and include them. How

people. Some students will see your avoidance

you relate to these students has a powerful impact

as prejudicial.

on their performance and retention (Ferguson,

•

Don’t avoid giving timely, constructive feedback

1989; Grant-Thompson & Atkinson, 1997; Guo &

to diverse students about their work out of fear

Jamal, 2007; Jones, 2004; Kobrak, 1992). Here are

of injuring their self-esteem or being accused of

some guidelines, and you’ll find more in the section

racism. Indeed, diverse students may interpret

“Equity in the Classroom” at the end of Chapter Five: your criticisms as racially motivated disrespect,

so you should bring up this possibility yourself

•

Assign and mention the scholarly and artistic

and explicitly ask them rather than sweeping the

contributions of diverse groups where appropriate

issue under the rug. Be very sure that the students

(Toombs & Tierney, 1992).

really understand your criticisms and recommen-

•

Call a group by the name that its members prefer.

dations for improvement (Gonsalves, 2002).

•

Develop a personal rapport with your African

•

Don’t make so much of their successes that you

American, Native American, Hispanic, and fe-

imply you didn’t expect them to succeed.

male students. Their style of thinking and dealing

•

Don’t let any students get away with insensi-

with the world tends to be relational and inter-

tive remarks in class. Such incidents open up

personal, which means intuitive, cooperative,

teachable moments for you to lead an open discus-

holistic, subjective, relationship focused, moti-

sion about cultural differences and stereotyping.

vated by personal loyalty, and oriented to socially

Before launching a potentially controversial

relevant topics (Anderson & Adams, 1992; Baxter

discussion, it is also a good idea to explain what a

Magolda, 1992). This style contrasts with the

civil intellectual discourse comprises and to set up

analytical, which values analysis, objectivity, logic, ground rules for it.

reason, structure, sequence, the abstract, debate,

•

Don’t ask diverse students to speak in class as rep-

challenge, competition, and economic practical-

resentatives of their group. Whatever the group, it

ity. It is prevalent among European and Asian

is too internally diverse to be represented by one

American males and in the academy in general

or a few members.

Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

15

THE CHALLENGE

effective teaching and achieving learning outcomes;

the term learning outcome did not even exist. Students With such a varied student population on so many

were solely responsible for their learning, and those dimensions, including academic background, instruc-who survived college had to have strong study skills, tors sometimes wonder at what level of student to aim cognitive abilities, and self-motivation. Under this old their courses. Unfortunately, there is no clear answer.

system, many of today’s students would never have

Some of us find peace aiming at the top 20 percent,

completed college—if they ever gained admission.

where we know our efforts will be intellectually pro-

During the 1980s and 1990s, higher education

ductive. Others of us aim at the broad middle, hoping started to adopt a different and rather novel goal: to to bring as many students along with us as possible. Of educate as many as possible rather than to screen. At course, where the top 20 percent and broad middle

the time, which wasn’t long ago, this was quite a

lie varies by type of institution.

radical notion, but it also was a pragmatic response

This dilemma rarely presented itself over forty

to the changing demographics of our society. This

years ago. Back then, higher education was largely

shift in the mission of higher education generated

a screening device for privileging the best and the

teaching and learning centers, higher faculty standards brightest—and often the wealthiest—over the rest of

for teaching effectiveness, and an explosion of re-

the socioeconomic pack. The more selective colleges

search on how students learn and respond to different and universities welcomed only the top performers,

instructor behaviors, teaching methods, and instruc-

regardless of cultural and economic background, and

tional settings. This book draws on and integrates

they shamelessly discouraged or flunked out students

much of this research into a practical reference on the who did not thrive on the lecture method. In fact,

most effective approaches to use for different types of most institutions with a high attrition rate were proud learning outcomes.

of it. The society did not hold them accountable for

C H A P T E R 2

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

Teachinghasonlyonepurpose,andthatisto theydomayinvolvewriting,discussing,acting,cre-facilitate learning (Cross, 1988). Learning can

ating a graphic or visual work, conducting an experi-

occur without teaching at no loss to anyone,

ment or demonstration, making an oral presentation,

but teaching can and unfortunately does occur with-

designing a Web page, or teaching a lesson. Any dis-

out learning. In the latter case, the students obvi-

play of learning will do, as long as you can perceive it ously lose time, money, potential gains in knowledge

though your senses and appraise the quality of the per-and cognitive development, and perhaps confidence

formance. How else can you determine their internal

in themselves or the educational system (or both). But state—what they know, realize, and understand?

less obviously, instructors lose faith in their students and in themselves. For our own mental health as well

WHY OUTCOMES-CENTERED

as that of our students, we need to make teaching and COURSE DESIGN?

learning synonymous sides of the same coin.

The first step toward this goal is to design your

This chapter proposes starting the course design pro-

courses wisely. Whether you are teaching an estab-

cess with what you want your students to be able to

lished course for the first time, developing a brand-

do by the end of the course. But other approaches ex-

new course, or revising a course you currently teach, ist. You can develop a course around a list of content first ask yourself what you are trying to accomplish.

topics you consider important to cover. In fact, before No doubt, you want your students to learn certain

1990, a course was always characterized by its range

things, to master a body of material. But you can’t as-of content, such as “a comprehensive survey of verte-

sess how well you’ve met this goal, or your students’

brate animals including their taxonomy, morphology,

learning, unless you have them do something with

evolution, and defining facets of their natural history that material that demonstrates their learning. What

and behavior” or “an introduction to the process of

17

18

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

literary criticism.” Course catalogues and many syllabi on time, and meet all other course expectations of you still contain these descriptions. You can also organize as a student.”

a course around your favorite textbook or the one

Before you start composing outcomes, find

you’ve been told to use. However, such approaches

out from your dean or department chair whether

will not ensure that your course is student active,

an accrediting agency has already mandated them

which we know is essential for learning, or accept-

for your course. For instance, the National Council

able to your institution’s and your school’s accrediting for the Accreditation of Teacher Education lists the

agencies.

required outcomes for many education courses. The

Outcomes-centered course design guarantees

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology

a high level of student engagement because the

provides program outcomes, some of which may be

process steers you toward student-active teaching

useful and even essential for your course.

strategies. It also conforms to the accountability

If you, like most other instructors, are free to

requirements of an increasing number of accrediting

develop your own outcomes, you might first want

agencies. These agencies hold a unit accountable for

to research the history of the course. Why was it

its students’ achieving certain learning outcomes, as proposed and approved in the first place, and by

well as for formally assessing its students’ progress whom? What special purposes does it serve? What

toward that goal. In other words, they require

other courses should it prepare students to take?

departments and schools to determine what they

Often new courses emerge to meet the needs of a

want their students to be able to do, at least on

changing labor market, update curriculum content,

graduation, and to produce materials that show what

ensure accreditation, or give an institution a competthe students can do. Some agencies even take it on

itive edge. Knowing the underlying influences can

themselves to specify exactly what abilities and skills help you orient a course to its intended purposes for the graduates of a certain area should demonstrate.

student learning (Prégent, 1994).

Second, get to know who your students are so

WRITING OUTCOMES

you can aim your course to their needs and level.

Refer to the first part of Chapter One for the types

A learning outcome is a statement of exactly what

of student data you will need—all of which should be

your students should be able to do after completing

available from your institution’s admissions office, stu-your course or at specified points during the course.

dent affairs office, and career center—to find out the Some faculty set outcomes for individual classes and

academic background, interests, and course expecta-

units of the course. Outcomes are written from a stu-

tions of your likely student population. Ask colleagues dent’s point of view—for example, “After studying

who have taught the course before about what topics,

the processes of photosynthesis and respiration, the

books, teaching methods, activities, assignments, and student should be able to trace the carbon cycle in a so on worked and didn’t work well for them. The

given ecosystem.” Of course, they are promises, and

more relevant you can make the material to the target you should make it clear that students have to do their group, the more effective your course will be.

part to make this promise come true. So you might

If you cannot gather much information in ad-

state verbally and in your syllabus something like this: vance, keep your initial learning outcomes and course

“Students may vary in their competency levels on

design somewhat flexible. On the first day of class, use these abilities. You can expect to acquire these abili-index cards and icebreakers to learn more about your

ties only if you honor all course policies, attend classes students and their expectations (see Chapter Four);

regularly, complete all assigned work in good faith and then adjust and tighten the design accordingly.

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

19

Technically an outcome has three parts to it,

TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

though usually only the first part appears in the outcomes section of a syllabus. Sooner or later, however, Virtually every college-level course has cognitive you will have to define the second and third parts

outcomes—those pertaining to thinking. But other

as well:

types exist that may be pertinent to your courses.

Psychomotor skills—the ability to manipulate specific Part 1: A statement of a measurable performance. Learn-objects correctly and efficiently to accomplish a

ing outcomes center on action verbs (for example,

specific purpose—constitute another type that is im-

define, classify, construct, compute; see Table 2.1) rather portant in art, architecture, drama, linguistics, some than nebulous verbs reflecting internal states that can-engineering fields, all laboratory sciences, nursing

not be observed (for example, know, learn, understand, and other health-related fields, and foreign languages.

realize, appreciate). For example: “The student will be Affective outcomes specify emotional abilities you able to classify given rocks as igneous or metamor-want your students to develop, such as receiving,

phic.” “The student will be able to describe the most responding, and valuing (Krathwohl, Bloom, &

important differences between sedimentary and meta-

Masia, 1999). Of course, you cannot observe your

morphic rocks.” Table 2.2 later in the chapter offers students’ inner feelings, but you can observe their

many more examples.

demonstration of emotions. For example, in nursing,

Part 2: A statement of conditions for the performance.

counseling, and the ministry, students must learn

These conditions define the circumstances under

to show empathy and open-mindedness toward

which the student’s performance will be assessed.

patients and clients, and performances can be assessed Will she have to demonstrate that she knows the

in a role play or a case analysis. Such abilities are differences among

igneous, metamorphic, and

also very useful in management, medicine, human

sedimentary rocks in writing, in an oral presentation, resources, marketing, psychology, and architecture.

or in a visual medium (drawings, photographs)? Will

A wide range of disciplines integrate social learning he be able to identify the parts of a computer system outcomes to their courses, since the workplace

on a diagram or in an actual computer?

relies on teamwork and group learning is now

Part 3: Criteria and standards for assessing the perfor-widely accepted. Many instructors want their

mance. By what criteria and standards will you eval-students to be able to collaborate effectively in a

uate and ultimately grade a student’s performance?

team, and they consider both the group product

What will constitute achieving an outcome at a high

and peer evaluations of the group members’ social

level (A work) versus a minimally competent level

behavior in assessing students’ performance. With

(C work)? For example: “For an A on essay 3, the

new ethics-across-the-curriculum programs, ethical student will be able to identify in writing at least

outcomes have come to the fore. Some institutions

three differences between igneous and metamorphic

and schools want their students to take into ac-

rocks, at least three between igneous and sedimen-

count the moral considerations and implications of

tary rocks, and at least three between metamorphic

various options in making professional, scientific,

and sedimentary—for a total of at least nine differ-

technical, and business decisions. The case method,

ences. For a B, the student will be able to identify

simulations, role plays, service-learning, fieldwork, at least six differences. For a C, the student will

and internships provide both learning and assess-

be able to identify at least four differences,” and so ment contexts for ethical objectives. Exhibit 2.1

on. Rubrics have such criteria and standards built

gives more specific examples of all five types of

into them.

outcomes.

20

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Exhibit 2.1

General Types of Learning Outcomes

Psychomotor— physical performance; may involve eye-hand coordination. Examples: medical and nursing procedures; laboratory techniques; animal handling or grooming; assembling, operating, testing, or repairing machines or vehicles; singing; dancing; playing musical instruments; use of voice, face, and body in public speaking.

Affective— demonstration of appropriate emotions and affect. Examples: demonstrating good bedside manner and empathy with patients; showing trustworthiness and concern for clients, customers, subordinates, or students; showing tolerance for differences; showing dynamism, relaxed confidence, conviction, and audience responsiveness in public speaking.

Social— appropriate, productive interaction and behavior with other people. Examples: cooperation and respect within a team; leadership when needed; assertive (not aggressive, passive, or passive-aggressive) behavior in dealing with conflict; negotiation and mediation skills.

Ethical— decision making that takes into account the moral implications and repercussions (effects on other people, animals, environment) of each reasonable option. Examples: medical and nursing decisions involving triage, transplants, withholding care, and prolonging life; lawyers’ decisions about whether and how to represent a client; managerial decisions involving social, economic, political, or legal trade-offs.

Cognitive— thinking about facts, terms, concepts, ideas, relationships, patterns, conclusions.

Examples: knowledge and remembering; comprehension and translation; application, analysis, synthesis, and creating; evaluation.

Fink (2003) takes a somewhat different app-

•

Integration: Students perceive connections among roach in his model of six categories of learning,

ideas, disciplines, people, and realms of their lives.

which encompass cognitive, affective, and social

•

Human dimension: Students gain a new under-

outcomes. His categories are cumulative and inter-

standing of themselves or others, often by seeing

active, and the ideally designed course incorporates

the human implications of other kinds of learning.

all six of them as outcomes. In fact, Fink claims

•

Caring: Students acquire new interests, feelings, that all six kinds of learning are essential to create a and values about what they are learning as well

genuinely significant learning experience. These are

as motivation to learn more about it.

his categories of learning:

•

Learning how to learn: Students learn about the process of their particular learning and learning

in general, enabling them to pursue learning

•

Foundational knowledge: Students recall and de-more self-consciously, efficiently, and effectively.

monstrate understanding of ideas and infor-

(Reprinted with permission of John Wiley and

mation, providing the basis for other kinds of

Sons, Inc.)

learning.

•

Application: Students engage in any combination In the “Helpful Frameworks for Designing a

of critical, practical, and creative thinking; acquire Course” section later in this chapter, we consider how key skills; and learn how to manage complex

an instructor can create learning experiences that in-projects, making other kinds of learning useful.

terrelate all these categories synergistically.

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

21

For the time being, we will focus on writing

All of these conceptual terms become more

cognitive outcomes, since they are universal in higher concrete in Table 2.1, which lists common student

education courses.

performance verbs for each of Bloom’s and Anderson

and Krathwohl’s cognitive operations. Once you

select the cognitive operations that you’d like to

TYPES OF COGNITIVE OUTCOMES

emphasize in a course, you may find it helpful to

refer to this listing while writing your outcomes.

Bloom (1956) developed a useful taxonomy for con-

Another good reference is Table 2.2, which gives

structing cognitive outcomes. His framework posits

examples of outcomes at each cognitive level in

a hierarchy of six cognitive processes, moving from

various disciplines.

the most concrete, lowest-level process of recalling

Bear in mind that the true cognitive level of an

stored knowledge through several intermediate cog-

outcome depends on the material students are given

nitive modes to the most abstract, highest level of

in a course. If they are handed a formal definition of evaluation. (Depending on your field, you may prefer

iambic pentameter, then their defining it is a simple to make application the highest level.) Each level is recall or, at most, comprehension operation. If, how-defined:

ever, they are provided only with examples of poems

and plays written in it and are asked to abstract a def-

•

Knowledge: The ability to remember and reproinition from the examples, they are engaging in the

duce previously learned material

much higher-order process of synthesis.

•

Comprehension: The ability to grasp the meaning As you check key verbs and draft outcome

of material and restate it in one’s own words

statements, think about what cognitive operations

•

Application: The ability to use learned material in you are emphasizing. We can foster critical thinking

new and concrete situations

and problem-solving skills only by setting outcomes

•

Analysis: The ability to break down material into above the knowledge/remembering and compre-its component parts so as to understand its organi-

hension/understanding levels. Although these lower

zational structure

levels furnish foundations for learning, they are not

•

Synthesis: The ability to put pieces of material the end of education. Therefore, it is wise to include together to form a new whole

some higher-order outcomes to challenge students to

•

Evaluation: The ability to judge the value of higher levels of thinking. We will revisit Bloom’s and material for a given purpose

Anderson and Krathwohl’s combined taxonomy in

Chapter Fourteen, as it is also very useful for framing This handy taxonomy is popular to this day, but

questions.

Anderson and Krathwohl (2000) offer a few “friendly

Once you draft your outcomes, go to Table 2.3,

amendments” to it in their newer model. They use

on the last page in this chapter. It presents a rubric for more action-oriented gerunds, update the meaning

evaluating and revising learning outcomes.

of “knowledge” and “synthesis,” and rank “creating”

above “evaluating”:

DESIGNING THE LEARNING

•

Remembering = Knowledge (lowest)

PROCESS

•

Understanding = Comprehension

•

Applying = Application

When you list all your learning outcomes, you will

•

Analyzing = Analysis

probably notice that some have to precede others.

•

Evaluating = Evaluation

Students have to achieve some of them early in the

•

Creating = Synthesis (highest)

term to prepare them to achieve more advanced ones

22

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Table 2.1

Student Performance Verbs by Level of Cognitive Operation in Bloom’s Taxonomy and Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy

1. Knowledge/Remembering

2. Comprehension/Understanding

Arrange

Omit

Arrange

Paraphrase

Choose

Order

Associate

Outline

Define

Recall

Clarify

Recognize

Duplicate

Recite

Describe

Rephrase

Find

Recognize

Explain

Report

Identify

Relate

Express

Restate

Label

Repeat

Grasp

Review

List

Reproduce

Identify

Select

Match

Select

Indicate

Summarize

Memorize

Spell

Interpret

Translate

Name

Tell

Locate

Visualize

3. Application/Applying

4. Analysis/Analyzing

Apply

Illustrate

Analyze

Distill

Break down

Interpret

Calculate

Distinguish

Calculate

Make use of

Categorize

Divide

Choose

Manipulate

Classify

Examine

Compute

Operate

Compare

Experiment

Demonstrate

Practice

Contrast

Identify assumptions

Determine

Schedule

Criticize

Induce

Dramatize

Sketch

Deduce

Inspect

Employ

Solve

Derive

Investigate

Give examples

Use

Differentiate

Model

Utilize

Discriminate

Probe

Discuss

Question

Dissect

Simplify

Test

5/6. Synthesis/Creating

6/5. Evaluation/Evaluating

Adapt

Imagine

Agree

Dispute

Arrange

Infer

Appraise

Evaluate

Assemble

Integrate

Argue

Judge

Build

Invent

Assess

Justify

Change

Make up

Award

Prioritize

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

23

Table 2.1

(Continued)

5/6. Synthesis/Creating

6/5. Evaluation/Evaluating

Collect

Manage

Challenge

Persuade

Compose

Modify

Choose

Rank

Conclude

Originate

Conclude

Rate

Construct

Organize

Convince

Recommend

Create

Plan

Criticize

Rule on

Design

Posit

Critique

Score

Develop

Predict

Debate

Select

Discover

Prepare

Decide

Support

Estimate

Produce

Defend

Validate

Extend

Propose

Discount

Value

Formulate

Set up

Discredit

Verify

Forward

Suppose

Disprove

Weight

Generalize

Theorize

Note: Depending on the use, some verbs may apply to more than one level.

Table 2.2

Examples of Outcomes Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy and Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy Level

The Student Should Be Able to . . .

Knowledge

•

Define iambic pentameter.

/Remembering

•

State Newton’s laws of motion.

•

Identify the major surrealist painters.

Comprehension

•

Describe the trends in the graph in his or her own words.

/Understanding

•

Summarize a passage from Socrates’ Apology.

•

Properly translate into English passages from Voltaire’s Candide.

Application/Applying

•

Describe an experiment to test the influence of light and light quality on the Hill reaction of photosynthesis.

•

Scan a poem for metric foot and rhyme scheme.

•

Use the Archimedes principle to determine the volume of an irregularly shaped object.

Analysis/Analyzing

•

List arguments for and against human cloning.

•

Determine the variables to be controlled for an experiment.

•

Discuss the rationale and efficacy of isolationism in the global economy.

Synthesis/Creating

•

Write a short story in Hemingway’s style.

•

Compose a logical argument on assisted suicide in opposition to his or her personal opinion.

•

Construct a helium-neon laser.

Evaluation/Evaluating

•

Assess the validity of certain conclusions based on the data and statistical analysis.

•

Critically analyze a novel with evidence to support a critique.

•

Recommend stock investments based on recent company performance and projected value.

24

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

later in the course. If they cannot perform the pre-

your mediating outcomes, and you will probably

requisite outcomes, they won’t be able to achieve the have quite a few of them, each representing a

latter ones. For instance, if you want your students to component or lower-level version of one of your

be able to develop a research proposal near the end

ultimate outcomes. You might want to visualize

of the course, they will have to be able to do several the working-backward process by picturing a

other things beforehand:

branching tree that grows from three or more main

trunks (ultimate learning outcomes) on the far

•

Frame a research problem or hypothesis.

right and branches back to the left. These branches

•

Justify its significance.

represent your mediating and foundational (the

•

Conduct and write up an adequate literature

very first) outcomes, which students must achieve

review.

before attempting the more advanced outcomes to

•

Devise an appropriate research design.

the right.

•

Describe the data collection procedures.

Your challenge now is to figure out the most

•

Outline the steps of the analysis (which is premised

logical and efficient order in which students should

on some methodological expertise).

acquire these mediating abilities. These outcomes

•

Explain the importance of the expected results.

may have a logical internal order of their own. The

•

Develop a mock budget.

skill-building logic is probably clearest in cumulative If your course or its prerequisite courses do not

subjects such as mathematics, physics, and engineer-

include these skills as outcomes, the students will be ill ing. However, many courses, especially those within

equipped to achieve the outcome of writing a decent

a loosely organized curriculum, allow instructors a lot research proposal.

of discretionary room in sequencing the mediating

From this perspective, a course is a learning pro-

outcomes. Textbooks may follow a certain order, but

cess of advancing through a logical succession of outthe topical sequencing may be largely arbitrary. In

comes. This sequencing of outcomes serves as scaf-

introductory survey courses, literature courses, and

folding for the entire course design.

even certain science and health science courses, the

topics students study and the skills they acquire can Ultimate Outcomes

be logically organized in different ways.

The easiest way to develop this logical succession of student learning outcomes is to formulate your end-Foundational Outcomes

of-term, or ultimate, outcomes first. These are likely Once you work your way back to the beginning of

to be the most challenging skills and cognitively ad-

your course, you will reach your foundational learn-

vanced learning. No doubt they require high levels

ing outcomes: those on which the learning process

of thinking (application, analysis, synthesis, or eval-of the course is predicated. These will involve one or uation) and a combination of skills and abilities that more of the following:

students should have acquired earlier in the course.

Often assessment takes the form of a major capstone

•

Your students will master the lowest-level cogni-

assignment or a comprehensive final, or both, to assess tive operations on the subject, recalling and para-student achievement of these outcomes.

phrasing basic facts, processes, and definitions of

essential terms and concepts.

Mediating Outcomes

•

They will identify, question, and abandon the

From here you work backward, determining what

misconceptions about the subject matter that they

your students will have to be able to do before

brought into the classroom at the beginning of

they can achieve your ultimate outcomes. These are

the term.

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

25

•

They will identify, question, and abandon their

As discussed in Chapter One, knowledge is simply

dualistic thinking about the subject matter (a par-

a mental grid that human beings have created and

ticularly prevalent epistemological misconception)

imposed over a more complex reality to try to under-

as they come to recognize uncertainties in the

stand and manipulate it. This grid encompasses all the field.

major patterns we have identified through our obser-

vations, along with our best-evidenced interpretations These are perhaps the most basic learning objec-of them at this point in time. The fact that that real-tives we can set for students. After all, they can’t apply, ity is inherently messy and conforms only so far to

analyze, synthesize, or evaluate a discipline’s knowl-any grid we can construct is the underlying source of edge if they cannot speak or write the discipline’s

the uncertainty in all disciplines. Because all grids are language and summarize or paraphrase the basics. If

more or less flawed, disciplines have evolved standards you organize a course into modules of knowledge

of comparison for distinguishing the better ones. To

that have different sets of basic facts, terms, concepts, bring students to these insights, dualism is the first or theories, you will probably have foundational out-misconception we should discredit before escorting

comes at the start of each module.

them into our subject matter.

Moreover, students cannot accurately map new,

valid knowledge onto existing knowledge that is

riddled with misconceptions and misinformation.

HELPFUL FRAMEWORKS FOR

A faulty model will not accommodate the new

DESIGNING A COURSE

material you intend for them, so they will not be

able to assimilate it, at least not at more than a surface Three frameworks—Bloom’s (1956) and Anderson

level. To bring about a major shift in your students’

and Krathwohl’s (2000) hybrid taxonomy cognitive

worldview, you must create learning situations that

operations, Perry’s (1968) and Baxter-Magolda’s

reveal the errors in their mental models and the

(1992) theory of undergraduate cognitive develop-

explanatory superiority of your discipline’s model.

ment, and Fink’s (2003) categories of learning—offer

Let

us

consider

some

discipline-specific

schemata, alone and in combination, for designing

examples of essential shifts. To master physics on a

courses. You may find one or more of them useful as

serious level, students must replace their Aristotelian heuristic devices.

or Newtonian model of the physical world, both of

which are serviceable in everyday life, with Einstein’s Bloom’s and Anderson and Krathwohl’s

model. To think like a sociologist, a learner must

relinquish an individualistic free-will view to explain Framework

people’s life courses and replace it with the deter-

Both Bloom’s (1956) and Anderson and Krathwohl’s

ministic, probabilistic theory that their location in the (2000) taxonomies of cognitive operations are hierar-social structure at birth stacks the deck in favor of chical, from lower order to higher order. They posit

or against possible life courses and the acquisition of that to be able to perform one level of thinking, learn-various rewards. To understand evolutionary biology,

ers must be able to perform all the lower-order think-students have to stop viewing Homo sapiens as the ing operations. By extension, a well-designed course

purpose and destination of epochs of evolution and

should sequence the learning outcomes to lead stu-

see our species as just another temporarily successful dents up the hierarchy.

adaptation among millions of others.

It is self-evident that a student has to be able to

In addition, to begin to internalize any body

define certain concepts, state certain principles, and of knowledge, students must acquire an understand-recall certain facts before thinking about them in a

ing of what knowledge actually is and what it isn’t.

more complex way. But beyond that, both Bloom’s

26

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

and Anderson and Krathwohl’s hierarchy breaks

sociobiology. Rather than list them in the learning

down. For instance, the practice of medicine, law,

outcomes in the syllabus—at the time, they were

and other professions is all about applying knowledge called “objectives,” not “outcomes,” and were rarely

to new, often complicated situations. But before

listed—I wrote them in the paragraphs below, starting applying knowledge, professionals have to analyze the with the ultimate outcome:

elements of the problematic situation, evaluate what knowledge and disciplinary algorithms are most useful By the end of this course, you will have developed

and relevant to the situation, and synthesize (or create) a well-reasoned, personal position on the role of free a problem-solving strategy—for example, a legal

will, determinism, compatibilism, fatalism, and spiri-approach or a medical diagnosis and treatment plan.

tual destiny in your own and others’ lives. You will

be able to express, support, and defend your position Perry’s and Baxter-Magolda’s Framework

orally and in writing while acknowledging its weak-

nesses and realizing that it can never be validated as

“The Cognitive Development of Undergraduates”

“the right answer” and that it may change over time

section in Chapter One summarizes both Perry’s

[Ultimate Outcome: Tentative Commitment]. Hope-

(1968) and Baxter-Magolda’s (1992) parallel frame-

fully, you will also begin to feel comfortable with the works. As a course design heuristic, the idea is to

uncertainty and tentativeness of knowledge and with

sequence your learning outcomes as students progress

making decisions in spite of it.

through each of the stages or levels, whether nine or four, as far as you think you can lead your class. For To help you attain these major objectives [outcomes], the primary foundational outcome, which is moving

you will also acquire these supporting abilities: to sift beyond dualism, students would have to explain the

out the various positions on free will and determin-

multiple competing interpretations or theories for

ism (as well as compatibilism, fatalism, and spiritual some disciplinary phenomenon or issue, demonstrat-destiny) in the assigned literature, along with their ing that they realize that authorities don’t have all implicit premises and “givens,” and to express them

the answers or the one right answer on the matter.

accurately in writing and orally [Foundational Out-

To achieve a major mediating outcome (moving

come: Uncertainty]; to draw sound comparisons and

through multiplicity and relativism), students would

contrasts among them; to evaluate their strengths,

have to analyze and critique these interpretations

weaknesses, and limitations [Mediating Outcome 1:

or theories. For the ultimate outcome (tentative

Uncertainty as Inherent and Legitimate]; and to dis-

commitment), they would have to embrace one of

tinguish among the stronger and the weaker positions

the interpretations or theories and justify their choice,

[Mediating Outcome 2: Standards for Comparison].

as well as qualify it by explicating the limitations of the chosen viewpoint.

The ultimate outcome closely reflected the final paper While this schema may not apply well to an

and the two mediating outcomes, the tasks required

undergraduate science or engineering course, it

in the first two papers.

can work very effectively in high-uncertainty and

interpretive disciplines, such as literature, the arts, and Fink’s Framework

philosophy. I used it to design a freshman seminar

Fink’s (2003) categories of learning do not offer a

I taught in the past, Free Will and Determinism.

built-in sequencing of outcomes as do the other

While anchored in philosophy, it featured readings

two frameworks. His approach is not hierarchical

from clinical and behaviorist psychology, sociol-

but cumulative and interactive. An ideally designed

ogy, political science, genetics, biochemistry, and

and developed course promotes all six kinds of

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

27

learning, resulting in a genuinely “significant”

learning. You can illustrate your course design in an learning experience. The goal is not to order the

outcomes map, which is a flowchart of the learning kinds of learning but to help students interrelate

outcomes, starting from your foundational outcomes,

and engage in them synergistically. So a course

progressing through your mediating outcomes, and

design based on Fink’s framework might start with

finally arriving at your ultimate outcomes. In other

foundational knowledge and then progressively add

words, it is a visual representation of the sequence, outcomes addressing each of the other five kinds

progression, and accumulation of the skills and

of learning one or more times during the course,

abilities that students should be able to demonstrate ensuring that all six kinds are represented by the end.

at various times in the term. It shows how achieving

According to Fink, his framework can accom-

one or more outcomes should enable students to

modate courses of all levels and disciplines, whether achieve subsequent ones.

face-to-face or online, and he provides a compre-

As I have written extensively on charting an out-

hensive, step-by-step procedure for applying it to any comes maps elsewhere (Nilson, 2007a), I will furnish

course. Here is one generic example. After students

here just a couple of examples that I have developed.

acquire some foundational knowledge, have them ap-

Figure 2.1 is an outcomes map for my Free Will and

ply this new knowledge to solve a problem of rele-

Determinism course. Following Perry’s (1968) frame-

vance to them (application) or to a situation where

work, it contains just a few outcomes that build up

they can see how some phenomenon affects them

to the ultimate “commitment” outcome. These out-

and others (human dimension). This learning experi-

comes parallel those copied from the course syllabus

ence should promote their interest in the subject mat-above. Figure 2.2 is the outcomes map for my gradu-

ter (caring). With their interest piqued, they should ate course, College Teaching. It does not follow any

begin to notice the relationships between the new

course design framework. It has a genuine flowchart

material and other things they have learned (integra-

look and feel, clearly showing how achieving one

tion). As they recognize more linkages, they should

outcome equips students to achieve later ones. The

start drawing additional implications for their own

students’ major assignment is an individual course deand others’ lives (human dimension) as well as other

sign and development project, after which they write

ways to apply the material to improve the quality of

a statement of teaching philosophy. I make it clear to life (application). At this point, they should want to my students that, of course, I won’t be able to assess learn still more (caring) and realize their need to ac-them on two of the ultimate outcomes—obtaining a

quire stronger learning skills (learning how to learn).

teaching position and meeting institutional assessment This illustration shows that a well-designed course can requirements and goals—but they will leave knowing

generate a mutually reinforcing relationship between

how to meet these crucial career goals in their fast-

learning and motivation.

approaching future.

While these two examples look very different,

they cannot possibly illustrate the dozens of ways that SHOWING STUDENTS THEIR

outcomes maps can vary: the directions in which they

LEARNING PROCESS

flow, their spatial arrangements, their enclosures and connectors, and their use of type sizes, type styles, The younger generation of students is not as facile

shadings, and colors. Outcomes maps may or may not

with text as it is with visuals, so a wise idea is to reflect one of the three course design frameworks dis-illustrate your course design to your students so they cussed earlier. They may or may not supply a time

can see where your course is going in terms of their

schedule—such as the week or class number that you

28

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Figure 2.1

Outcomes Map for a Freshman Seminar: Free Will and Determinism ULTIMATE LEARNING OUTCOME

To develop and explain in writing a well-reasoned personal position on the role of free will, determinism, compatibilism, and fatalism (including spiritual destiny) in your own and others’ lives, and to defend it while acknowledging its weaknesses and limitations (capstone paper 3) MEDIATING LEARNING OUTCOMES

To assess how research supports

To assess how one’s own life

or refutes each position (study

experiences support or refute

questions and in-class discussions,

each position (journaling and

weeks 6 –12; paper 2 on scientific

in-class discussions, weeks

findings versus clinical reports due

6 –14)

week 12)

To refute positions from the viewpoints of other positions (simulation/mock trial week 6, based on paper 1)

To apply the positions to interpret and assess a situation (paper 1 on criminal case, due week 6)

FOUNDATIONAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

To express accurately, both orally and in writing, the free willist, determinist, compatibilist, and fatalist positions, along with their assumptions and justifications (readings, study questions, in-class writing exercises, in-class discussions, weeks 1–5) expect students to achieve each outcome. But how-OUTCOMES-CENTERED COURSE

ever they look, they all furnish students with far more DEVELOPMENT

information about how their learning will progress

through the course than a simple list of outcomes.

Your course design is a skeleton. With that in place, If you decide to chart an outcomes map for

you have to start developing the course into a more

any of your courses, the process will probably make

detailed plan—that is, filling it out by putting muscle you reexamine your outcomes and their sequencing.

and connective tissue on the bone structure.

You might realize that you’ve previously missed a step or two in your students’ logical learning process or

Course Content

that a different ordering of some of your outcomes

Only after formulating your learning outcomes

would make more sense. So you may find that you

should you begin to select the content that will help get as much out of your drawing the map as your

your students achieve those outcomes. The challenge

students do.

is to limit the content to only this purpose. If you

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

29

Figure 2.2

Outcomes Map for a Graduate Course, College Teaching

Note: CATs = classroom assessment techniques.

Foundational Learning Outcomes

Mediating Learning Outcomes

Ultimate Learning Outcomes

To Assess and

To Motivate

Improve Your Teaching

Students

Effectiveness

Students’ Cognitive

To Design

a Course

To Meet

Development,

To Design Effective

To Assess Student

Institutional

Cognition, Values,

Student Learning

Learning (w/ CATs,

Assessment

Motivations,

Experiences,

Effective Tests,

Requirements

Behaviors,

To Design

Activities

Grading Rubrics)

and Goals

Learning Styles

Graphic and

Text Syllabi

To Obtain a

Teaching Position

To Set Assessable

To Write a

and Attainable

Teaching

Student Learning

Philosophy

Objectives/Outcomes

specialize in the content area, it will be difficult

reflects your general philosophy and preferences.

to narrow it. Prégent (1994) advises brainstorming

If you’re not so lucky, consider selecting the best

as many topics and themes as possible. For help,

available option for some of your reading assignments you can consult Contents pages of reputable texts,

and supplementing it with handouts, reserve readings, course catalogues and syllabi from other institutions, websites, and a class packet. Try to avoid making

and your colleagues. Then rank-order the topics

students purchase more than one expensive text.

according to their relevance to your outcomes.

It is one thing to assign readings and another

Do not hesitate to eliminate topics entirely. In-

to get students to read them. If you have found

structors, especially new ones, tend to pack too much students’ reading compliance or even comprehension

material into a course. It is better to teach a few topics to be a problem, then consider yourself in excellent

well than merely to cover the material with a steam-

company and refer to Chapter Twenty-Three for

roller and wind up teaching very little of anything.

solutions.

You can draw a graphic of the interrelationships

among your course topics just as you can draw one

In-Class Activities, Assignments, and

about the organization of your student learning out-

Assessments

comes. We look at the graphic syllabus in the next

Your learning outcomes should direct all the other

chapter.

elements of your course. Let’s start with graded

assignments and assessments. Your ultimate outcomes

Readings

should suggest questions and tasks or at least foci,

Choose books in line with your learning outcomes

themes, or formats for your final exam, final paper

and content. If you are looking specifically for a

assignment, or capstone student project. After all,

textbook, you will be fortunate to find one that

these outcomes delineate what you want your

30

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

students to be able to do by the end of the course.

at least outlined your assignments and assessments.

Then move backward through the course and devise

It’s just that simple—almost anyway. The chapters in

assignments and tests that have students performing

Part Six offer good advice about constructing these

your mediating and, finally, your foundational out-

instruments and assessing student performance on

comes. Once you’ve written sound outcomes, you’ve

them.

Table 2.3

Rubric for Evaluating and Revising Student Learning Outcomes Dimension

Excellent

Common Errors

Needs Revision

Missed the Point

Outcomes are

Outcomes are

Some outcomes use

Outcomes do not

Outcomes list the

observable,

assessable and

verbs that refer to a

describe (1)

topics the course

assessable, and

measurable. The

learner’s internal

observable

will cover or

measurable.

instructor can

state of mind, such

performances

what the

observe (usually see

as know,

that are assessable

instructor will

or hear) and evaluate

understand, or

and measurable

do. Or outcomes

each learner’s

appreciate, which

and/or (2) what

use verbs that

performance by

an instructor

the learners will

refer to a learner’s

clear standards—for

cannot observe and

be able to do.

internal state of

example, how well,

assess. Or some

mind, which an

how many, to what

outcomes are too

instructor cannot

degree.

general to specify

observe and

standards for

assess.

evaluation.

Most outcomes

Most outcomes reflect

All or almost all the

Not enough

Some outcomes

require high

high levels of

outcomes require

outcomes address

consistently use

levels of

cognition

low levels of

higher levels of

verbs that refer to

cognition.

(application, analysis,

cognition

cognition, given

a learner’s

synthesis, and

(knowledge and

the level of the

low-level internal

evaluation).

comprehension),

course and the

state of mind,

such as recognize,

learners.

such as know,

identify, define, or

understand, or

describe.

appreciate.

Outcomes are

Outcomes are realistic

Outcomes are too

Outcomes are too

Outcomes don’t use

achievable.

for the course length

numerous for the

advanced for the

action verbs to

and credit hours and

instructor to assess

course length or

describe what the

the level of the

or the learners to

credit hours for

learners will be

learners.

achieve.

the learners.

able to do.

Outcomes are

Outcomes are relevant

Not all the outcomes

The learners can’t

Outcomes don’t

relevant and

to the learners and

and their benefits

make sense out

indicate what the

meaningful to

their personal or

are clear to the

of the outcomes.

learners will be

the learners.

career goals.

learners.

able to do.

Selecting in-class activities and learning-focused

little time to manage and give feedback on them.

assignments is a more complex process because you

So all of Chapter Eleven is devoted to helping you

have so many possibilities to choose from and so

make the best decisions—that is, selecting the most

Outcomes-Centered Course Design

31

effective methods for your outcomes—and the

Figure 2.1 of my Free Will and Determinism

chapters in Parts Three and Four describe your major

course shows not only the relationships among

options and how to implement them. You will find

the learning outcomes but also the activities and

the class-by-class bricks and mortar for building a

assignments that helped students achieve those

successful learning experience for your students,

outcomes and assessed their progress. These activities ensuring that your teaching translates into learning.

and assignments are listed in parentheses after each

Indeed, your outcomes can and should guide

outcome, followed by the weeks in the term that

your choice of activities down to the individual class they occurred. They included three papers, readings,

level. If you want your students to be able to write

in-class and online discussions, journaling, a simula-a certain type of analysis by a certain week of the

tion, study questions, and in-class writing exercises.

term, then structure in-class activities and assignments While this does not provide a class-by-class schedule, to give them practice in writing that type of analysis.

it served well as a general outline for developing the If you want them to be able to solve certain kinds

schedule and detailed descriptions of the activities and of problems, then design activities and assignments to assignments.

give them practice in solving such problems. If you

Once you have a sound course design, your syl-

want them to research and develop a point of view,

labus almost writes itself. The next chapter presents a and argue it orally, then select activities and assign-concise checklist of all the information that can and ments to give them practice in research, rhetoric, and usually should be included in this important course

oral presentation, if they don’t already have it.

document.

C H A P T E R 3

The Complete Syllabus

Asyllabusismostsimplydefinedasaconcise Cohen,2008),whetherprintedoronline.Themore outline of a course of study. But it is also

information you include, the less you have to im-

the students’ introduction to the course, the

provise or decide on the run, and the fewer student

subject matter, and you. In addition to providing a questions you will have to answer. If you doubt that

schedule of class assignments, readings, and activities, your students will read such a lengthy document, see

it should give students insight into the material and the penultimate section in this chapter on inducing

your approach to teaching it. In a sense, then, it is not your students to read it.

only the road map for the term’s foray into knowl-

edge but also a travelogue to pique students’ interest APPROPRIATE SYLLABUS ITEMS

in the expedition and its leader.

While syllabi of just a couple of pages are com-

mon, students always have many more questions than

Following is an annotated list of all the information that you should put in a course syllabus. For examples a brief syllabus can answer. In addition, some courses of the recommended information and further detail,

call for a great deal of first-day information. A com-Grunert O’Brien et al. (2008) is by far the best re-

prehensive, well-constructed syllabus may easily run

source. At the end of this section is a box on the

five, six, or even ten pages, and this isn’t necessarily items that can protect you from student complaints,

too long. The original “learning-centered syllabus”

grievances, and even lawsuits:

can go on for twenty, thirty, or fifty pages or more, becoming in effect a “course handbook” (Grunert,

1. Complete course information: The course

1997). So this chapter presents a suggested checklist number and title; days, hours, and location of class

for developing a shorter but comprehensive syllabus

meetings; credit hours; any required or recommended

(Altman & Cashin, 1992; Grunert O’Brien, Millis, & prerequisites, including permission of the instructor 33

34

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

for enrollment; any required review sessions; any re-

it, and the major topics it will address. You may even quired laboratories or recitation or discussion sections, want to list topics it will not cover, especially if your with the same information as given for the course;

course has too much popular appeal and tends to at-

and the titles and location of any online course mate-tract less-than-serious students.

rials, exercises, assignments, exams, and supplemen-

7. Your student learning outcomes for the course—

tary materials that are on the Web (give the URL) or

not just your ultimate outcomes (what students

in your course management system (give the folder).

should be able to do or do better at the end of the

2. Information about yourself: Your full name and course) but also your mediating and foundational

title, the way you wish to be addressed, your office

outcomes. Chapter Two gives guidance on devel-

hours, your office location, your office phone num-

oping solid learning outcomes, designing a course

ber, email address, and home page URL (if you have

around them, and charting an outcomes map to

one). If you decide to give students your home or cell show students your plan for their learning process.

phone number, you may wish to limit calls to certain

However, you don’t want your outcomes to be

days and hours. So your students do not expect you

interpreted as binding promises, and you know

to be on email 24/7, specify the days and hours that

your students have to apply themselves to achieve

you will be answering their email.

these outcomes. So consider adding the caveats and

3. The same information about other course person-disclaimers recommended in the box on legal issues

nel, such as teaching assistants (TAs), technicians, and in the syllabus.

other assistants. You might encourage your section

8. All graded course requirements and a complete

and lab TAs to develop their own syllabi.

breakdown of your grading scale, preferably buttressed 4. A briefly annotated list of reading mate r ials, by a rationale. Nothing is so annoying as hearing

such as assigned books, journal articles, class packets, half your students bargain for points or ask for a

and Web materials with full citations (including edi-

curve after an exam. Detail the point values of all

tion), price, location (bookstore, library, reserve status, graded work: in-class and homework assignments,

URL, or course management system folder), identifi-

peer group evaluations, class participation, discussion, cation as required or recommended, and your reasons

electronic communication, tests, papers, projects, and for selecting them. If you do not plan to give reg-so on. Also comment on the expected number and

ular assignments from the text, consider making it

types of tests and quizzes, homework assignments,

a recommended supplementary source. If commer-

and papers. Specify whether lowest-scoring work can

cially prepared notes are available, say how helpful

be thrown out. Finally, state the grading system you

they might be.

will use (criterion-referenced or a curve), along with 5. Any other materials required for the course, in-percentage breakdowns.

cluding cost estimates and where to find them at a

9. The criteria on which each written assignment, good price. (Don’t forget eBay for pricier items.) For project, and oral presentation will be evaluated, includ-example, some science labs require students to have a ing your grading system (see Chapter Thirty-One)

personal stock of cleaning supplies and safety equip-

and your policies regarding revisions and extra credit.

ment. Art and photography classes usually expect stu-

As with grade protests that often follow returning

dents to furnish their own equipment, supplies, and

exams, the choral call for extra credit can be a nui-

expendable materials. If special types of calculators, sance unless your position is firmly established from computers, or software are called for, describe these the start.

in detail. If the materials won’t be used immediately, 10. Other course requirements aside from those com-specify when in the term they will be.

puted in the grade. If you expect students to participate 6. A complete course description, including the in class discussions, you must tell them. If you plan organization or flow of the course, your rationale for to give unannounced, ungraded quizzes to monitor

The Complete Syllabus

35

comprehension, then let it be known from the begin-

are naive or will look the other way. This statement

ning. It is better to ensure that all students understand may include a summary of the official procedures you

your expectations from the start than to spring new

will follow in prosecuting violations and the sanctions rules on them later in the term.

a student may suffer. (See your institution’s course cat-11. Your policies on attendance and tardiness.

alogue, student handbook, or faculty handbook for

Instructors occasionally debate whether to grade on

details.) If your institution has an honor code, state attendance. As one side argues, how can students

that you will strictly adhere to and enforce it. An-

learn and contribute to the class without being there?

other reason to address academic honesty policies is

(As Woody Allen once put it, over 90 percent of life is to spell out how you will apply them to cooperative

just showing up.) No question, taking and grading on

learning activities and products. Instructors have to attendance does increase class attendance (Friedman,

devise their own rules on small-group work. If you

Rodriguez, & McComb, 2001). But others argue

don’t detail your rules, one of two things is likely to that students should be free to learn as much or as

happen: your students may inadvertently violate your

little as they choose by whatever means they choose.

and your institution’s policies, or they may not work However you decide, your syllabus should state

as cooperatively as you’d like.

your policy.

14. A statement of your institution’s policies on Including attendance and even tardiness in the fi-Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) accommoda-

nal grade (some instructors incorporate it under class tions. The office at your institution that provides these participation) is no longer unusual. Absences are a

accommodations should be able to furnish you with

problem at many institutions, especially in required

such a statement.

courses (Friedman et al., 2001). Some colleges and

15.

Policies on classroom decorum and academic

universities require instructors to report students who discourse. Classroom and general social incivility are excessively absent, so you may have to keep athas increased in recent years, and having policies

tendance even if you don’t intend to grade on it.

and ground rules defining appropriate and inap-

(Check the academic regulations in your institution’s propriate behavior can go far in preventing class

course catalogue.) However, most instructors do not

disruptions, name-calling, personal attacks, and other count certain absences, such as those for documented

demonstrations of disrespect. State any consequences

medical reasons, documented court obligations, and

for disruptive behavior specifically and clearly, and athletic team commitments.

explain the nature of, value of, and rules for civil

12. Your policies on missed or late exams and

discussion. Chapter Seven sets out recommended

assignments. Students occasionally have good reasons policies.

for missing a deadline or a test, as they do for some 16. Proper safety procedures and conduct for lab-absences, and you may want to ask for documen-

oratories. While you would hope that students would tation for the reason given. State whether students

have the common sense to apply good safety habits

can drop one quiz or grade during the term or if

to their work, you cannot assume that these habits

a makeup is possible. If you assess penalties for late are intuitive. Specify strict rules for lab dress and pro-work, describe them precisely to put to rest any later cedures. If you threaten to exact penalties for safety disputes.

violations, then stand ready to make good on your

13. A statement of your and your institution’s

word. Remember that it is better to take away a few

policies on academic dishonesty, as well as their applica-lab points than to risk the safety of the entire section.

tions to your course. Cheating and plagiarism are all too (See Chapter Twenty-Two.)

common on campuses, as Chapter Eight documents.

17. Relevant campus support services for students Unless you make a strong statement about your intol-and their locations for assistance in mastering course erance of them, your students may assume that you

software, doing computer assignments, writing papers

36

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

or lab reports, learning study skills, and solving home-Three other syllabus items are recommended:

work problems. The Appendix identifies these re-

21. Curricular requirements your course satisfies, sources on the typical campus.

such as general education; writing-, speaking-, or

18. Other available study or assignment aids. If ethics-across-the-curriculum; various majors; and any you plan to distribute study guides, review sheets,

other graduation requirements that your institution

practice problems, practice essay questions, or advance or department has.

grading rubrics, students find it helpful to know about 22. Background information about yourself, such them from the start.

as your degrees, universities you attended, other

19. A weekly or class-by-class course schedule with universities where you have taught or conducted

as much of the following as possible: topics to be

research, and your areas of research. After all, you

covered; in-class activities and formats (lecture, guest may be asking your students for some personal and

speaker, class discussion, group work, demonstration, academic information. In addition, most students are

case study, field trip, role play, simulation, game, de-keenly interested in you as a professional and a person bate, panel discussion, video, computer exercise, reand appreciate knowing something about you. A

view session, and so on); dates of announced quizzes

little sharing about yourself can also help build their and exams; and due dates of all reading assignments,

sense of personal loyalty to you.

written homework, papers, and projects. Be sure to

23. Your teaching philosophy. So many faculty accommodate holidays and breaks.

write such a statement for job applications and re-

20. A concluding legal caveat or disclaimer. In our views that you might want to append yours to your

litigious society, a few students have filed grievances syllabus or include an abbreviated version in the doc-and even sued faculty for failing to follow the syllabus ument, preferably within the first page or so. It can schedule and policies. Although you may not intend

express your commitment to education, your hopes

your syllabus to be a legally binding contract, students and objectives for your students, your knowledge of

may think they are not getting their money’s worth if how people learn, your view of the mutual rights

you significantly diverge from the syllabus during the and obligations between instructors and students, the course or fail to get through it. Therefore, for your rapport with students you aim to develop, and your

own protection, take note of the last entry in the box, preferred teaching and assessment methods. With it,

“The Legal Side of the Syllabus.”

you can set a fruitful, congenial tone for the term.

The Legal Side of the Course Syllabus

Your course syllabus is generally regarded by your students, your institution, and the courts as a legally binding contract. To protect yourself and meet student needs, you must supply certain information. If you desire flexibility, you must build it into the document. Including the items that follow will help you avoid student complaints, grievances, and even lawsuits:

•

Prerequisite courses student should have successfully completed to pass this course— whether or not these are stated in the course catalogue.

•

How often and when you will answer student email.

•

Days and hours you will be accessible to students by phone.

•

Policies of your institution on ADA accommodations.

The Complete Syllabus

37

•

Policies on missed and late exams and assignments. Describe any penalties clearly and precisely, and state a ‘‘no exceptions’’ policy clearly. Check the academic regulation in your institution’s course catalogue so your penalties don’t exceed what is allowed.

•

Policies on attendance and tardiness. If you require class attendance and on-time arrival and take off any points for lack of attendance or tardiness, you should state academic reasons for your requirements (for example, you conduct learning activities or lecture important materials not in the readings).

•

Policies on class participation. If you grade on class participation, be sure you have some sort of written record to back up this part of the grade.

•

Policies on academic integrity, including in collaborative work specific to the course. Typically it is best to follow, and to state that you follow, your institution’s policy on academic integrity: that you refer all cases of suspected cheating and plagiarism to whatever administrative office is in charge of the matter. Multiple incidents of academic dishonesty therefore have a cumulative impact on students.

•

Policies and procedures on lab safety and health if they are applicable.

•

Policies on classroom decorum and academic discourse if needed. State any consequences for classroom incivility specifically and clearly, justifying your policies as necessary for optimal student learning.

•

Policies on extra credit, even if you will allow none. Your course grading breakdown, such as, 91–100 = A, 81–90 = B, and so on. Assume nothing.

•

Caveat or disclaimer regarding your student learning outcomes. You can’t guarantee that students will learn to do anything unless they do their part as learners. Therefore, add this or a similar statement after you list your outcomes: ‘‘(1) Students may vary in their competency levels on these outcomes, and (2) they can expect to achieve these outcomes only if they honor all course policies, attend classes regularly, complete all assigned work in good faith and on time, and meet all other course expectations of them as students.’’

•

Caveat or disclaimer regarding changes to the course. Adding this statement or one like it at the end of your syllabus will give you the flexibility you may need during the term: ‘‘The above schedule, policies, procedures, and assignments in this course are subject to change in the event of extenuating circumstances, by mutual agreement, and/or to ensure better student learning.’’

In addition to these twenty-three items,

page and a contents page. To its credit, it provides

Grunert’s (1997) learning-centered syllabus contains

students with all the tools they need to succeed in

the content of course handouts, such as instructions

your course from the start, and you have all the

for assignments, that most instructors distribute

elements of your course in place.

during the term. It can also include much more:

a letter from the instructor; reading, studying,

note-taking, writing-style, and exam-taking tips and

THE GRAPHIC SYLLABUS

aids; a learning-styles inventory and interpretation

key; a learning contract; team-building suggestions;

A graphic syllabus, like an outcomes map, is a visual and detailed directions for projects, papers, presen-tool to communicate your course to students more

tations, and portfolios. This type of syllabus can

effectively. Specifically, it is a flowchart, graphic orga-become so long that it deserves and requires a title

nizer, or diagram of the sequencing and organization

38

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

of your course’s major topics through the term. It

for, it. As I have already written extensively about

may also note the calendar schedule of the topics, the the graphic syllabus (Biktimirov & Nilson, 2003;

major activities and assignments, and the tests. But

Nilson, 2002, 2007a), the discussion here will be

however much information it contains, it can’t in-

brief.

clude everything that a regular text syllabus should, so Perhaps the best way to understand the concept

it is meant to be a supplement to, not a replacement

is to see an example of it. Figure 3.1 displays the

Figure 3.1

Graphic Syllabus of Social Stratification Course

COURSE ORGANIZATION AT A GLANCE

Social Stratification

Week

Therory-General Explanations for Inequality

I–II

Opposed and

Talking Past

Each Other

Functionalism

Conflict Theory

Lenski’s

Synthesis

III

on

Findings, Research, Data

Economic Inequality

III

Power Inequality

IV

MIDTERM

V

VI

Prestige Inequality

VII

Opportunity Inequality

VIII–IX

How Stratification Persists: Political System

X

How Stratification Persists: People’s Response to Stratification Human Psychology

The Complete Syllabus

39

graphic syllabus of an undergraduate Social Strati-

less working memory and fewer cognitive transfor-

fication course I taught at UCLA some years ago.

mations. Graphics especially benefit students with

It is fairly simple and unadorned, but it helped my

learning styles that reading materials and lectures

students see the complex interrelationships of the don’t reach effectively—those known as “visual,”

weekly topics. For instance, it makes clear that the

“concrete,” “holistic,” “global,” “divergent,” and

first three weeks addressed theory and the rest of the

“intuitive-feeling,” depending on the learning style

course empirical research. It illustrates that one of framework used. (See Chapter Twenty-Five for

the two major theories has spawned research on two

summaries of some of these frameworks.) Since these

types of inequality (which support this theory), while learning styles are increasingly common, perhaps

the other major theory has generated research on two

dominant, among younger students but relatively rare

other types of inequality (which support that theory).

among college faculty (Schroeder, 1993), it is easy to During the last few weeks on how social stratification overlook our students’ needs for visuals. Moreover,

persists, the graphic shows that one explanation

graphics communicate better than text across cultural derives only from one major theory and its research,

and language barriers, so they help meet the learning while the second one integrates both major theories

needs of a diverse student population. Graphics also

and their findings, as well as psychology. The flow of showcase alternative ways of taking notes, outlining

course topics takes on a logic and internal cohesion

papers, and organizing concepts that students with

that a list cannot capture.

the learning styles above can really use. Chapter

Aside from clarifying complex relationships

Twenty-Six explains and references the evidence

among topics, a graphic syllabus offers many other

for these learning advantages as they apply to visual learning benefits. As explained in Chapter One, it

representations in general.

gives students an additional level of understanding

One final benefit of designing a graphic

of the course material by providing the big pic-

syllabus is for you. Not only is the activity a creative ture of your course content—the structure of the

right-brain outlet, but it can help you identify any

knowledge as an integrated whole, a cohesive system

snags in your course organization, such as topics that of interpreting phenomena. With a knowledge

are chronologically misplaced or missing or don’t

structure already in hand, students are better able to fit at all.

deep-process and retain the material. In addition, a

Bear in mind that a graphic syllabus shows the

graphic syllabus reveals why you organized the course structure of your course, not the field, its history, or the way you did. No doubt you put substantial time

a theoretical model. These may make fine graphics,

and mental effort into your course design and topical but under a different name. In addition, a graphic syl-organization, but without any background in the

labus should flow in only one direction, as a course

field, students can’t possibly follow your sophisticated does through time. A final warning: Don’t make it too logic. They don’t know what many of the words

complex, cluttered, or detailed. Its intent is to clarify.

mean or how one concept or topic may relate to

And do refer to it during the course as you would to

another. A graphic shows such relationships using

a map during a trip.

spatial arrangements and arrows.

Additional advantages accrue from a graphic

syllabus by virtue of its being a visual represen-

THE ONLINE ‘‘LIVING SYLLABUS’’

tation. Students are more likely to comprehend

and remember materials they receive both verbally

All distance learning instructors have an online syl-

and visually. In addition, they need not expend as

labus, and even many classroom instructors have one

much cognitive energy interpreting a graphic as

in addition to a hard-copy version. The beauty of an

they do interpreting text because visuals require

online syllabus is that it gives you the option to make

40

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

it dynamic, growing, “living,” as Mark A. Wilson at

are answered in the syllabus. So the challenge is getthe College of Wooster (2008, p. 1) put it. In the

ting students to focus on the document. Although

first paragraph on his website for his classroom-based they may not remember every aspect of the course,

course, History of Life, he informs his students that they should remember where they can look up in-he will be adding links, images, alternative perspec-

formation. Just reading through the syllabus out loud tives on controversial issues, and other information on during your first class meeting isn’t enough, and be-a weekly basis as the term proceeds, and he requires

sides, you have other matters to tend to during that

them to check the site at least once a week.

class period (see Chapter Four). Here are four more

Those of us who post our course materials

effective options.

on a course management system also add mate-

First, if your syllabus is not too long, have your

rials

during

the

term—from

lecture

outlines

students read it in class; then break into small groups to homework assignments to review questions.

to do one of several possible syllabus activities. For But we usually add them to various folders on

instance, they can simply discuss the document and

our course site and rarely, if at all, put them

answer each other’s questions about it. Alternatively, into the syllabus. The advantage to doing the

you may want to structure their discussion around

latter is that students wind up reviewing the syl-

some question, such as: “Compared to the other

labus again and again. Depending on where we

courses you’ve taken in college, do you expect

locate the new material in the document, students

this one to be more or less difficult [or require

may be reminded of the various course requirements,

more or less time], and why?” For another possible

policies, schedule, and previously learned content.

activity, Ballard (2007) had her students make a list Wilson (2008) maximizes the potential value of his

of questions that they should never ask her, since the students’ scrolling through his syllabus by having two answers are in the syllabus. Perhaps the most gamelike content-rich sections of text (350 to 900 words) for

alternative is to send the groups on a scavenger hunt each week’s topic—Web resources for that week and

for certain critical information in the document.

“Geology in the News”—each studded with links to

You might want to bring some small rewards for the

more information on concepts, proper names, and

students in the quickest and most thorough group.

other subjects he mentions. On the way to the new

Another option is to assign the syllabus as

material he has added for the week, students glance

homework, answer questions about it the second

through prior material.

day of class, then have each student sign a contract

with statements like these: “I have thoroughly read

the course syllabus and understand its contents. I

GETTING STUDENTS TO READ

understand the course requirements and the grading

YOUR SYLLABUS

and attendance policies stated in the syllabus” (T.I.D.

Campbell, personal communication, September 27,

A solid syllabus says good things about you to your

2001).

class. Among them, it says that you understand

A third alternative, especially for a long syllabus,

students, how they abhor surprises and last-minute

is to assign it as homework and give a graded test

assignments, and how they appreciate a tightly or-

on it the second day of class (Raymark & Connor-

ganized, explicit course structure around which they

Greene, 2002). The test items need not be all factual can plan the next few months. It says that you respect questions on the number of tests, the point value

them, as well as the subject matter of the course.

of assignments, and the like. You can ask interesting Even so, you can’t expect students to really study

and thought-provoking short-answer and short-essay

your carefully constructed document. Regularly dur-

questions, such as: “Which of the student learning

ing the term, instructors field student questions that objectives for this course are most important to you

The Complete Syllabus

41

personally, and why?” “Of the four papers assigned,

needed information on the first day, such as course

which are you least (or most) looking forward to writ-prerequisites, your office hours and contact informa-

ing, and why?” “Which of the grading criteria for

tion, ADA accommodations, safety procedures and

your oral presentation play most to your strengths as conduct (if applicable), classroom conduct policies,

a learner or a speaker?” Answers to these questions

and early reading assignments.

will give you insights into your students’ aspirations, interests, insecurities, and self-assessments. Such questions will also motivate your students to think about THE EVOLVING SYLLABUS

the value of your course to them personally and pro-

fessionally.

Over the past few decades, the syllabus has evolved

One final option is to distribute your syllabus

from a short, sterile list of required readings,

the first day but wait to review it in class until the third topics, assignments, and dates to an elaborate,

week of the term or so, after your enrollment stabi-

detailed blueprint for a carefully constructed learning lizes and students start to care about the course re-experience. The document has even added several

quirements, assignments, and grading (F. A. McGuire,

opportunities for instructors to place their personal personal communication, October 12, 2007). This

trademarks, as well as graphic counterparts and

is just-in-time learning at its purest, and you are al-dynamic online possibilities. It is rare for an official most guaranteed an interested audience. Of course,

document to undergo such a radical transformation

you will still have to refer your class to immediately so quickly.

C H A P T E R 4

Your First Day of Class

Whetheryouareteachingforthefirsttime there is there. Avoid the copying machine bottle-or are a seasoned classroom veteran, the

neck (and the often resulting malfunctions) by making first day of class can evoke anxiety as well

copies of your first-day handouts as far in advance as as excitement. Like no other day, it affects the tenor you can.

of the entire term. It may also represent innovations Along with course materials, prepare your

and experiments in course content, organization, and

agenda for the first class. This chapter contains a

design; teaching formats and techniques; and assess-

range of productive activities to choose from. It may ment methods—not to mention all those new stu-be wise to divide your selections into “essential” and dent faces. This chapter suggests ways to reduce the

“desirable as time remains.” Practice your first-day

anxiety, heighten the excitement, and start off the

presentations and your directions for the activities in course on a positive, professional, and participatory advance.

note. It should be particularly useful to newer instruc-A day or two before your first class, tend to

tors. With some adaptation, these strategies apply to some classroom details. First, inspect the room to en-online courses as well.

sure that all of the technology that you will need

(hardware, software, overhead projector) is there and in working order and that you know how to access

BEFORE THE FIRST CLASS

and operate it. Don’t forget low-tech needs like chalk, whiteboard markers, and erasers. Check the lights, the You probably prepared your course materials well be-clock (if any), and the heating and air-conditioning

fore the start of the term. If you have posted materi-system as well. If anything is missing or awry, ask your als on your course management site or independent

department to correct the problem. Then take a few

website, check that everything that you want to be

moments to orient yourself to the setting. Stand in

43

44

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

the front of the room and imagine the seats filled with Stretching relaxes and loosens your muscles while

your students. Make eye contact with the sectors of

increasing circulation and your overall energy.

your imaginary class, walk out toward them, move

•

Shake out your hands and feet as though you were

about the room, and practice smiling.

shaking off tension.

At least a half-hour before the first class, start

•

Move your eyes from side to side and up and

preparing yourself—specifically, your body and your

down to prepare for making eye contact all over

voice. You want to project a successful instructor

a room.

persona to your class—one of relaxed confidence,

goodwill, and an in-command, no-nonsense pres-

This next series of exercises will increase your

ence. This will inspire your students’ respect for your vocal variety, resonance, articulation, and projection: authority, their confidence in you, their goodwill

in return, and their willingness to honor your rules

•

Sing scales up and down a few times.

and policies. Plus, you want to convey enthusiasm,

•

Say one or more words at alternating high and low

passion, dynamism, and charisma so you can get their

pitches, as high and low as your voice can go.

attention and keep them engaged for the entire class.

•

Read a children’s book aloud with all the exagger-

If you don’t think you’re naturally relaxed, confident, ation in vocal variety and speaking pace that you

in command, and charismatic, take heart in knowing

can muster.

that you can look as if you are by practicing certain

•

Stretch your mouth and lips in every direction,

behaviors that are listed in Chapter Seven under

or exaggerate their movement while saying long,

“Preventing Incivility: Your Classroom Persona.”

complex words.

Furthermore, you can make these behaviors come

more easily and naturally by performing a few

Actors and singers do similar exercises every

exercises shortly before class.

time before they perform. Teaching involves perfor-

To make your body more relaxed, more fluid,

mance as well, and our bodies and voices are our

looser, and seemingly larger—meaning that you will

instruments. These exercises may be most important

fill up your life space—do the following in this order: before your first class of the term, but you will

enhance your classroom presence by doing them

•

Ground yourself by standing up straight with your

before your first class every teaching day.

feet about a foot apart, and feel them securely an-

If you are new to teaching, have strategies at

chored in the ground.

hand to combat any sudden case of stage fright. (Of

•

Breathe slowly and deeply from your diaphragm

course, there is no substitute for having practiced your three or more times. As you inhale, you should

first-day presentation and directions in advance.) Just feel your ribs and stomach expanding. Breathe in

before you begin class, take a few long, slow, deep

through your nose (which cleanses the air) and

breaths and balance yourself by focusing on some spot out through your mouth (to exhale more com-on the wall or an inanimate object in the room. You

pletely). Oxygen works wonders for shaky nerves

might also try looking just over the heads of your

and cloudy brains.

students for the first few minutes (but no longer, or

•

Stretch every part of your body in every direction.

students will notice). Or visualize yourself conducting It is best to stretch slowly until you feel a twinge

a one-on-one tutorial instead of talking to a class. Al-of strain, then hold the pose for a moment. For

ways feel free to take a quiet moment to breathe and

your spine, bend over all the way forward, then

collect your thoughts. Remember that many students

backward and to each side. Roll your neck and

are impressed by anyone with the courage to speak

your shoulders, stretch out your arms, and do a

in public and are forgiving of the occasional lapse of few squats and lunges for your legs and thighs.

continuity.

Your First Day of Class

45

FIRST IMPRESSIONS

early, and set a welcoming tone by chatting with stu-

dents informally as they arrive. Make students feel

What you do and do not do the first day of class

comfortable with you as a person as well as an in-

will affect your students’ and even your own expecta-

structor, but don’t confuse your roles; remember the

tions and behavior for the rest of the term. So think difference between being friendly and being friends.

ahead of time about the expectations and behaviors

Not only are you not friends, but students ex-

you want to establish in your classroom for the next

pect you to maintain an orderly, civil classroom, with or without their voluntary cooperation. If you don’t, ten to fifteen weeks. Lay out these expectations and

your teaching effectiveness and their respect for you lead the kind of class activities that model the level will suffer. In fact, many students were never social-of student engagement you have in mind for the rest

ized to arrive to class on time, stay seated the whole of the course. For example, if you hope for consid-period, speak only when sanctioned by the instructor, erable discussion, engage your students in discussion, or show respect to both the instructor and their peers.

perhaps about their expectations of the course or their You have to give them—and enforce—your rules of

current conceptions of the subject matter. If you in-

classroom decorum. The first (or second) day of class tend to have several in-class writing exercises, start is the optimal time to set up a code of conduct for the with a short one that first class. If you plan on us-term, and the students who come already motivated

ing cooperative learning, have a small-group activity to learn will love you for it. Chapter Seven offers

the first day.

several effective approaches to getting this somewhat No doubt you want to establish a serious,

unpleasant job done without alienating your class.

professional classroom atmosphere, and you com-

Finally, make productive use of the entire class

municate this tenor in several ways. First, have a

period. The rest of this chapter suggests several social comprehensive, well-structured syllabus ready to

and content-oriented activities that you can organize, distribute (see Chapter Three). It tells your class that even if the students have no background in the subject you are careful, well organized, conscientious, and

matter. The most important point is not to waste the

serious about teaching. Make extra copies for last-

first class—not to treat it as a throwaway day or dismiss minute enrollees, and bring extras with you during

it early. Only if you treat class time like the precious the first two weeks of class.

commodity that it is will your students do so as well.

Second, say a few words to market the course

and the material. Enthusiasm is contagious. Show-

ing some of your own for the subject matter and the

opportunity to teach it will motivate your students’

EXCHANGING INFORMATION

interest in learning it and inspire their respect for you as a scholar.

Information flow should be a two-way street, even

Third, dress a little more formally than you

(and perhaps especially) on the first day. But you as normally would, at least if you’re inclined to more

the instructor initiate the exchange, first by displaying casual attire. A touch of formality conveys profession-the following information before class convenes: the

alism and seriousness. It also gives instructors who

name and number of your course, the section num-

are female, youthful looking, or physically small an

ber (if appropriate), the meeting days and times, your aura of authority and a psychological edge that help

name, your office location, and your office hours.

separate them from their students (Johnston, 2005;

This information assures students that they are in the Roach, 1997).

right place.

Since you expect students to be prompt, set a

The next several activities need not come in the

good example from the start. Arrive in the classroom

order presented, but they are strongly recommended

46

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

for setting an open and participatory as well as profes-rather than reading through the whole document,

sional tone for the rest of the term.

consider choosing one of the options under “Getting

Students to Read Your Syllabus” in Chapter Three.

Student Information Index Cards

The first one describes several syllabus activities in which small groups of students discuss the document,

Get to know your students, and let them know that

raise questions about it, or find information in it.

you are interested in them personally, by passing out These are ideal for the first day of class. Two other blank index cards and asking them to write down this

options are to assign the syllabus as homework and

information for you: their full name, any preferred

follow up with a test or a contract at the next class nickname, their year in school, their major, and

meeting. Don’t otherwise expect students to read the

their previous course work in the field. Additional

syllabus carefully.

information such as hometown, outside interests, and

Whether you share your teaching philosophy,

career aspirations may help you relate class material explain why you’ve chosen the teaching and assess-to your students on a more personal level. Consider

ment strategies you plan to use and what benefits

also asking them to write out what they expect

they have over other reasonable options, especially if from this course, why they are taking it (again,

your methods are innovative or collaborative. Your

aside from requirements), or what topics they would

explanation will not only reassure students of your

like to see addressed. You may be able to orient the

professionalism and commitment to their learning but

material toward some of their interests and advise

also reduce their resistance to unusual formats. They those with erroneous expectations to take a more

will also see your effort as a sign of respect for them.

suitable course.

In turn, clearly state your expectations of stu-

dents and their responsibilities for preparing for class Your Background

and participating. For example, if your course calls

Since you’re asking students about themselves, it’s

for considerable discussion, emphasize the importance of their doing the readings, your rules for calling on only fair to tell them something about yourself. (They them, and your criteria for assessing their contribu-are interested.) You needn’t divulge your life history, tions. Also, offer them some advice on how to take

but giving them a brief summary of your educational

notes on discussion; this remains a mystery even to

and professional background, orally or in your syl-

the most verbal students (see Chapter Thirteen). If

labus, helps reinforce your credibility as an instructor you plan to lecture at all, give students some pointers and your humanness as a person. A bit of openness

on your lecture organization and good note-taking

also enhances your students’ personal loyalty to you.

strategies (see Chapter Twelve). You might also share Include some information about your own resome helpful reading and study skills and problem-

search and interests, what attracted you to your disci-solving strategies appropriate to your subject matter.

pline, why you love teaching it, and the implications You cannot possibly anticipate all the questions

and applications of the subject in the world. See this that students will have, especially about your testing as an opportunity to make the material more relevant

and grading procedures. But here are some likely ones to your students.

that you should be prepared to field:

Course Information

•

How will you make up the tests?

Mark on your copy of the syllabus the points you

•

What types of questions will they have?

want to elaborate, clarify, and emphasize. For instance,

•

What kinds of thinking will they require?

do mention your office hours and urge students to

•

How should students best prepare for them?

seek your help outside class (see Chapter Nine). But

•

Will you distribute review sheets?

Your First Day of Class

47

•

Will you hold review sessions?

students especially appreciate it. If you plan on a lot

•

How will you evaluate papers and other written

of group work and class discussion during the term,

assignments?

this exercise will prepare students to participate.

•

How many As, Bs, Cs, and so on do you usu-

ally give?

•

How possible is it for all students to get a

Learning Students’ Names

good grade?

Most students, especially at smaller and private

colleges and universities, expect their instructors to learn their name. Students expect less personal treat-Reciprocal Interview

ment in very large classes (over one hundred students), This two-way interview, which takes about fifty minin which case learning their names will make you a

utes in small classes, is a structured activity for you and legend. To borrow an old cliché, learning your stu-your students to exchange course-related information

dents’ names shows you care. So begin learning and

(Case et al., 2008). You distribute a handout that asks using names to address students early. If you have trou-questions like these:

ble remembering names, here are some strategies to

help you.

1. What do you hope to gain from this course?

You can seat students in specific places and make

2. How can I help you reach these goals?

a seating chart. Students may not prefer a seating

3. What concerns do you have about this course?

chart, but they will tolerate it graciously if you say the 4. What resources and background in the subject

reason is to learn their names. Seating them in alpha-matter do you bring to it?

betical order will probably make learning their names 5. What student conduct rules should we set up to

easiest for you, and it ensures that proximity-based

foster the course’s success?

small groups will be randomly mixed. In addition,

6. What aspects of a class or an instructor impede

it will facilitate your taking attendance (just look for your learning?

the empty chairs).

Some instructors learn names by taking notes

Students write their answers to these questions

about each student’s physical appearance on the class as individuals for the first five minutes and discuss roster—information such as body shape and size, hair

them in groups for the next ten minutes. Then each

group spokesperson reports these responses aloud to

color and length, dress style, age, and any distinguish-the class (fifteen minutes). For the second part of the ing physical traits. It is best to conceal such notes from exercise, your handout should also suggest questions

your students’ view.

to pose to you about your course goals, student

Taking roll in every class helps you learn names

expectations, and views on grading. (Students can

as well as take attendance. While learning names, you ask other questions as well.) First as individuals, then can also use the roll to call on students more or less back in their groups, students select and develop

randomly as long as you tell your class what you’ll

questions for you, which requires about ten minutes.

be doing. Or you may use the index cards to call on

Then each group spokesperson reads these questions

students. Just shuffle them as you would a deck of

aloud, which you answer over the next ten minutes.

cards every so often.

According to student feedback (Case et al.,

Still another strategy is to have students wear

2008), this activity establishes a comfortable class

name tags or badges or display name cards or tents

environment, fosters a sense of community, commu-

on their desks. To avoid the hassle of making new

nicates your openness and commitment to student

name tags or cards for every class, print up permanent, success, and serves as a social icebreaker. Minority

convention-style tags or cards, distribute them at the

48

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

start of each class, and collect them at the end of each the prospect of speaking in front of a large group of session. This is also a subtle way to take attendance.

strangers can mildly terrify some students. If you will If you want to become a legend in a large class,

have your students make speeches or oral presentations your most effective strategy may be collecting pho-in front the class during the term, this first-day exercise tographs of your students with their names attached

can help them get used to the assignments to come.

and reviewing them over and over. First check to see

whether your institution makes the ID photos of the

Three-Step Interviews

students enrolled in your classes available to you on your course management site. If not, you or your

Students can share the same type of information with

teaching assistant can take digital photographs of in-a neighbor. Then, without knowing beforehand the

dividual students or small groups of students; just be second part of the task, each partner can introduce his sure each person is associated with the right name.

or her counterpart to another pair or to the class as a Or you can ask your students to give you a picture of whole. This exercise has the added benefit of teaching themselves with their name on it. Using photographs,

careful listening skills (Kagan, 1988).

you can probably master the names of over a hundred

students within a few weeks.

Class Survey

For an informal class survey like this icebreaker,

you do not want to use clickers (personal response SOCIAL ICEBREAKERS: GETTING

systems, explained in Chapter Twelve) because you

TO KNOW YOU

want your students to see who is giving this or

that answer. So begin by asking students to raise

If your class size allows it, try to incorporate one or their hands in response to some general questions:

two icebreaker activities on the first day. There are How many students are from [various regions of the

two types: the social or getting-to-know-you variety, country]? East/west of the Mississippi? First year,

which gets students acquainted, and subject matter

sophomores, juniors, seniors? How many work full-

icebreakers, which motivate students to start think-

time? How many are married? How many have

ing about the material. Feel free to move beyond the

children? How many like golf? Reading? How many

popular examples given here and devise your own.

have traveled abroad? To Europe? To Asia? Then you

Let’s first consider some social icebreakers. If you

may venture into opinion questions, perhaps some

plan on discussion or group work, these smooth the

relevant to the course material. Students soon start to way for broad participation and cooperative group

form a broad picture of their class and to see what

interaction. First-year students in particular appreci-they have in common. They will find it far easier to

ate the opportunity to meet other students, including interact with classmates who share their interests and more senior ones, who can serve as role models.

backgrounds.

Simple Self-Introductions

Scavenger Hunt

Perhaps the simplest social icebreaker is to have stu-In this more structured activity , give students a list of dents take turns introducing themselves to the class by

“requirements” and tell them to move about the class-

giving their name, major, maybe their reason for tak-

room seeking fellow students who meet each one.

ing the course (once again, aside from fulfilling some No one may use a given student for more than one

requirement), and perhaps something about them that

requirement. Some possible requirements are “has

they are proud of having done or become. This ac-

been to Europe,” “prefers cats to dogs,” “has a birth-tivity may work best in a smaller class, however, as

day in the same month you do,” “can speak two or

Your First Day of Class

49

more languages fluently,” and “cries at movies.” The

Classroom Assessment Techniques

“found” students sign their name next to the require-

Classroom assessment techniques (CATs) are un-

ment they meet. You might give prizes to the three

graded activities and exercises that you assign to your fastest students.

students (often anonymously) so you can appraise

their academic skills, intellectual development,

Human Bingo

self-awareness as learners, reactions to the material, This icebreaker is a variation on scavenger hunt. In-and understanding of the material (Angelo & Cross, stead of a list of requirements, make a page-size four-1993). Chapter Twenty-Eight examines CATs as

by-four table with a different requirement in each

tools to assess student learning in progress, but several box, and give one copy of the table to each student.

of them are designed for the first day of class or the Be sure your class as a whole can meet all the require-day you introduce a new topic. The Background

ments. As in the scavenger hunt, no one may use a

Knowledge Probe , for example, is a diagnostic test given student for more than one requirement. When

and a stimulus to recall previously learned material.

a student has all the boxes signed by qualified fellow Focused Listing also activates students’ prior know-students, she shouts out, “Bingo!” and gets a prize.

ledge. And in a Self-Confidence Survey, students

Bring a few prizes in case of ties.

assess how secure they feel about their cognitive and learning skills or their mastery of a body of knowl-The Circles of

.

edge, depending on how you design the survey. Such

Give each student a sheet of paper with a large cen-

an exercise enhances students’ self-awareness as learn-tral circle and other smaller circles radiating from it.

ers along with giving you insight into their cognitive Students write their names in the central circle and

and psychological preparation for your course.

the names of groups with which they identify most

strongly (such as gender, age group, religious, eth-

Problem Posting

nic, racial, social, political, ideological, athletic) in the satellite circles. Then have students move around the To whet students’ appetites for the material, one

room to find the three classmates who are the most

particularly useful first-day activity is problem posting or the least similar to themselves.

(McKeachie, 2002). First, ask students to think

Like Scavenger Hunt and Human Bingo, this

about and jot down either problems they expect to

exercise helps students appreciate the diversity in

encounter with the course or issues they think the

the class, as well as meet their fellow students. This course should address. Then act as the facilitator,

icebreaker also generates homogeneous or heteroge-

recording student responses on the board, a slide, or neous groups of four if you need them for another

an overhead transparency. To build trust with your

activity.

class, avoid seeming judgmental, and check the accu-

racy of your understanding by restating the students’

comments and requesting their confirmation.

SUBJECT MATTER ICEBREAKERS

As the frequency of student suggestions begins

to decline, propose stopping. Make sure, however,

This second type of icebreaker stimulates your stu-

that the whole class has a chance to contribute, even dents’ interest in the subject matter and informs you if you have to coax the quiet members. If some stu-about what they know, think they know, and know

dents wish to speculate on how to address any of the

they don’t know about it. Some of these can also help points listed, keep a close rein on the discussion so you identify or confirm their faulty models and mis-that it does not stray too far afield. Tell students which conceptions about the subject matter.

of their questions the course will address—this gives

50

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

them something to look forward to—but also be hon-

each pair or group reach a consensus around certain

est about the ones it will not.

statements. Have a spokesperson from each group

Problem posting is useful not only at the begin-

explain and defend its position. After these presen-

ning of the course, but also later when broaching a

tations, you can give the correct answers, which

particularly difficult topic. The exercise accomplishes may spark even more debate, or take the cliff-hanger

several purposes. First, it opens lines of communica-

approach and let the class wait for them to unfold

tion between you and your students, as well as among

during the term.

students. Second, it lends validity to their concerns and assures them they’re not alone. Third, it reaffirms that you are approachable and as capable of listening DRAWING CLASS TO A CLOSE

as you are of talking. Finally, it encourages students to devise solutions to problems themselves, reducing

At the end of this first class, you may want to ask stu-their reliance on you for the definitive answers.

dents to write down their reactions and hand them in

anonymously (McKeachie, 2002). Pose general ques-

Commonsense Inventory

tions such as: What is the most important thing you

Another way to break students into the subject

learned during this first day? How did your expecta-

matter, as well as help them grasp its relevance, is to tions of this course change? What questions or con-have them respond to a brief inventory or pretest

cerns do you still have about the course or the subject (Nilson, 1981). Assemble five to fifteen common-matter? Such questions show your interest in students’

sense statements directly related to the course

learning and their reactions to you and your course.

material, some or all of which run counter to popular You should also give them plenty of time to ask you

beliefs or prejudices—for example: “Suicide is more

questions in class.

likely among women than men.” “Over half of all

Finally, and it’s worth repeating, do not dismiss

marriages occur between persons who live within

the first class early. If you conduct some of the ac-

twenty blocks of each other.” Then have students

tivities in this chapter, the time will be more than

individually mark each statement as true or false and adequately filled and productively spent. Not only

share their answers in pairs or small groups. You

will your students enjoy an introduction to the course can let your students debate their differences among

and its subject matter, but they will also have a chance themselves, or you can thicken the plot by making

to get acquainted with you and their classmates.

C H A P T E R 5

Motivating Your Students

Inthecontextofeducation,theterm motivating someoneelsepayforit.Afewjustwanttoextend means stimulating the desire to learn something.

their adolescence and put off adult responsibilities.

When we in academe use the term, we’re usually

Returning students often have their eye on a pro-

talking about stimulating students’ interest in the sub-motion or a favorable career change. In the 1960s,

ject matter—in other words, intrinsic motivation. We some male students were motivated to excel at least

want to induce a genuine fascination with the subject, in part to stay out of the military during the Vietnam a sense of its relevance and applicability to life and the War. To them, their lives depended on decent

world, a sense of accomplishment (for its own sake)

grades.

in mastering it, and a sense of calling to it. But this is While we can’t always affect extrinsic forces,

only one type of motivation.

we can enhance our subject matter’s intrinsic appeal

Extrinsic motivators are external to one’s feelings to students, and intrinsic motivators are often more

about the subject matter, and we see them operating

potent than extrinsic ones (Hobson, 2002; Levin,

in our students strongly enough to eclipse their

2001; Svinicki, 2004). We know that motivation isn’t

intrinsic motivation. Among the most powerful are

fixed, but it isn’t easily modified in the short term eithe expectations of significant others, such as parents, ther (Frymier, 1970). How can we enhance students’

spouses, employers, and teachers. Many of today’s

intrinsic motivation? Most of us don’t feel very

younger students pursue a major because of its

successful at doing it. It seems that students come to earning potential. For them, high achievement in

us either motivated or not, and they leave the same

the form of top grades may mean entrance into

way. Do we have to reduce their extrinsic drive for

a professional or business school and ultimately a

good grades first? If we do, how can we? If we don’t, high-paying occupation. Other students may care

why can’t we be more effective at getting students

about grades only so they can stay in school or have

engaged in our material?

51

52

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

In spite of a huge literature about motivation

goals (to look competent) on both motivation and

in psychology and education psychology, we know

performance have been positive in some studies and

precious little about the topic. In the educational

negative in others (Urdan, 2003).

context, we don’t seem to know how to manipulate

Fortunately, a couple of studies have solicited

people’s values, attitudes, and belief systems very well, college students’ opinions of what makes them

at least not as well as politicians and advertisers seem want to learn, so we have a good idea of what

to know. Yet if it is true that when all is said and

students think motivates them. Sass (1989) found

done, learning is “an inside job,” motivating students the critical factors to be the instructor’s enthusiasm is our primary task.

for the material and teaching it, the high relevance

of the material, the clear organization of the course, the appropriateness of the difficulty level, active

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT

learning strategies, variety in the instructor’s teaching MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

methods, the instructor’s rapport with the students,

and the use of appropriate examples. These are all

The vast body of literature on the relationships

known to be highly effective in enhancing both

among intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and student learning and student ratings. More recently,

student performance comes to no clear conclusions.

Hobson (2002) identified the most powerful positive

One stance claims that extrinsic rewards undercut

and negative motivators for students. In order of

intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; descending importance, the former are the instruc-Kohn, 1993), but some say only under certain

tor’s positive attitudes and behaviors, a cohesive

circumstances: not if the reward is positive feedback course structure, a student’s prior interest in the

and verbal reinforcement (Deci, 1971) and only if

material, the relevance of the course content, and the the person was intrinsically motivated to begin with

appropriateness of the performance measures. The

(Svinicki, 2004). These findings have been used to armost potent demotivators are the instructor’s negative gue against grading, but think about it: Does the fact attitudes and behaviors and a disorganized course

that you get paid for teaching make it less appealing to structure. Further down on the list are a poor learning you? Another contingent finds almost the opposite:

environment, boring or irrelevant course content,

that extrinsic rewards have either no effect or an

and a student’s prior disinterest in the material.

enhancing one on intrinsic motivation (Cameron &

To the extent students perceive themselves ac-

Pierce, 1994; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996). Still curately, these findings are good news. Although we

others say the two types of motivators have interactive cannot control students’ attitudes about our material curvilinear effects on student performance, which is

before they come into our courses, we definitely have optimized by moderate extrinsic motivation coupled

control over our own attitudes and behavior and the

with high intrinsic motivation (Lin, McKeachie, & learning environment, and we usually determine the

Kim, 2001). Yet another position is that autonomy

course organization, course content, and assessment

of action trumps intrinsic-extrinsic distinctions

measures.

(Rigby, Deci, Patrick, & Ryan, 1992; Ryan & Deci, 2000). On the extreme end is the argument that

intrinsic motivation simply doesn’t exist (“Intrinsic CREDIBLE THEORIES

Motivation Doesn’t Exist, Researcher Says,” 2005).

OF MOTIVATION

A related body of research has addressed the impact

of performance goals. Performance-avoidance goals

Before we explore concrete strategies for enhancing

(to avoid looking incompetent) clearly undermine

students’ motivation, let’s consider the major theo-

motivation, but the effects of performance-approach

ries that anchor these strategies. In everyday practice,

Motivating Your Students

53

these models work best when two or more are applied

twenty-five-cent piece. Money is a more universal

together.

currency than grades. A quarter isn’t much, and it’s

only a secondary reinforcer (of value only when ex-

Behaviorism

changed), but it motivates her students to partake in literature from the beginning, which is no mean feat.

Behaviorism posits two types of reinforcement as

Lewes doesn’t give out quarters willy-nilly all

powerful shapers of behavior. In the positive variety, term. First, she doesn’t always give one out for a

students get (are rewarded with) something they want

second contribution during a class, thereby inducing

for their behavior, and in the negative type, they

the talkative students to hang back and the quiet

avoid something they don’t want for the behavior.

ones to speak out. Second, since the effect of pure

Either way, the students are the acting agents, and

positive reinforcement weakens over time, she soon

the reinforcement makes them more likely to repeat

replaces regular reinforcement with the selective

the behavior. Punishment following a behavior will

variety, rewarding only high-quality contributions

tend to decrease that behavior’s likelihood in the

with a quarter. At this point, the reward provides

future, but with less effectiveness than reinforcement.

informational feedback about the relative strength of Again there are two types. In one type, students

varying responses, and by this time, she has overcome get something they don’t want for their behavior,

students’ natural aversion to literature. In addition, and in the other, they are deprived of something

the delay students encounter in earning the next

they do want for the behavior. The problem is that

quarter enhances their motivation to work harder and

punishment teaches students what not to do, but it

develop their answers more fully. Third, she incorpo-

tells them nothing about what they should do.

rates regularly scheduled negative reinforcers—in the While behaviorist theory is straightforward and

form of daily quizzes on the readings—to ensure her

rings true, the key to applying it is determining what students are keeping up. Finally, she reserves a jackpot students (and people in general) do and do not want.

of a ten-dollar bill for extremely special occasions, All around the world, the educational system rests

such as when especially resistant or fearful students on grades as the universal student currency, but even volunteer worthy responses. The prospect of earning

they don’t always motivate and they certainly aren’t

ten dollars has made Lewes legendary among students

sufficient. But this is not to say that were it not for at her college, and anyone who has ever observed

our institutional obligation to give grades, we should gambling knows how the possibility of a jackpot

abandon behaviorism in teaching.

positively reinforces behavior. But rather than risking In fact, Darby Lewes applies behaviorist princi-money, these students are learning.

ples very effectively in her English literature courses Lewes’s approach may be controversial, but her

at Lycoming College, a small, private liberal arts instudents respond well to it and give her teaching high stitution (Lewes & Stiklus, 2007), and her secret has ratings. They acquire confidence and pride as they

nothing to do with grades. At the beginning of every

learn. Many of them even acquire a taste for literature.

course, she confronts her students’ natural aversion to It’s hard to argue with this kind of success.

the subject matter—one rooted in their fear of fail-

ure, a fear they acquired over years of schooling. Until we conquer this aversion, she contends, students will Goal Orientation

not learn the material at a deep level no matter what Students who work primarily for good grades have

we do or don’t do. So early in the term she moti-

what is called a performance goal orientation. They vates students to think about a piece of literature and aim to display higher competency than others and to

participate in class discussion about it by rewarding avoid making mistakes and “failing” in front of oth-each good-faith contribution with a quarter—yes, a

ers. Given the stakes, they tend to eschew risk taking.

54

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

For them, learning often exerts stress on their self-

and worldview. We can also make their learning

esteem and induces insecurity. By contrast, students

more of a social than an individual enterprise. Finally, who work out of a desire to learn have a learning we can give students a taste of achievement by

goal orientation. Because they don’t care about what encouraging them to tackle some genuine learning

others may think of their performance, they willingly challenges and rewarding them accordingly (Svinivki,

take risks, make mistakes, and seek feedback so they

2004). Again, more specifics are in the section on

can improve. As instructors, we want to foster this

strategies later in this chapter.

type of goal orientation because it engenders deeper

learning and retention of our material than does the

Expectancy of Goal Achievement

former (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).

Using this model, we can encourage learning

Expectancy theory rests on a pragmatic premise: Why

over performance goals by doing what we can to cre-

aspire to achieve something you know you can’t get?

ate a safe and secure classroom environment, reduce

Students won’t even try to learn something that seems students’ stress over tests and assignments, deempha-impossibly difficult. To set and pursue a goal, students size grades and competition, allow alternate ways to

need to believe they have the agency and the capabil-

satisfy course requirements, reward risk taking and

ity. Agency depends on their sense of self-efficacy and persistence, and role model a learning goal orien-their beliefs about the malleability of intelligence and tation (Svinicki, 2004). Specific ways to implement

locus of control. Students with low self-confidence,

these recommendations are under “Strategies for Mo-

the view that intelligence is fixed by heredity, or the tivating Students” below.

fatalist belief in an external locus of control have a weak sense of agency and a low expectancy of goal

achievement. Capability depends on their perception

Relative Value of the Goal

that the goal is reachable and that they have (or soon This social cognitive model posits that the more value will have) the skills, prior experience, and support to students give to learning our material, relative to

reach it. Students feel capable when they view the

meeting other needs in life, the more motivated they

learning task as doable, given their abilities, academic will be to learn (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, we have

background, and resources: time, encouragement, as-

to create experiences in which their learning serves

sistance, and so on (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).

important needs. In other words, we must add value

Although it can be hard to find the right

to their learning.

balance, we have to try to make our readings,

The purest value we add to our material is to

assignments, and tests just right—that is, neither too make it more stimulating, interesting, and emotion-long and hard nor too short and easy. But just as

ally engaging—that is, more intrinsically motivating.

important, we must foster our students’ beliefs that

But we shouldn’t stop there. We can also enhance its

they have the agency and capabilities to achieve. Too value by giving students some control and choice over many students sailed through the K–12 system and

the course content, their learning strategies, and their never had to meet an academic challenge before

performance options. In addition, we can highlight

coming to college. While they may have high self-

its practical utility to students, for now and in the esteem, they may have a weak sense of self-efficacy

future. Going deeper into the human psyche, we can

at the college level. They may even sabotage their

position our material to meet some immediate psy-

own success by not studying in order to protect their chological needs, such as those for cognitive balance, self-esteem since, if they do poorly, they can blame

social affiliation and approval, and self-esteem. For their lack of studying rather than their lack of ability.

instance, we can help students put their learning to-

It is likely that such students also believe that they ward resolving inconsistencies in their beliefs, values, can’t raise their intelligence.

Motivating Your Students

55

Other students don’t believe they have control

2001; Marsh, 1984; Owens, 1972; Panitz, 1999;

over their academic fate. In their experience, studying Paulsen & Feldman, 1999; Sass, 1989; Svinicki, 2004; and working hard seems to make little difference

Theall & Franklin, 1999; Watson & Stockert, 1987).

in their grades. They feel they just get lucky when

they encounter readings they can understand, test

Your Persona

questions they can answer, and assignments they can

handle. In their view, most of the control resides in us.

•

Deliver your presentations with enthusiasm and

Sometimes they get an instructor who likes them and

energy. Strive for vocal variety and constant eye

what they produce, but most instructors don’t. With

contact. Vary your speaking pace, and add dra-

this belief system, students don’t perceive themselves matic pauses after major points. Gesture and move

earning an A, a C, or an F; rather, they truly think

around the class. Be expressive. To your students,

that we give them an A, a C, or an F. While it is true be they right or wrong, your dynamism signifies

that faculty grading criteria and standards may vary, your passion for the material and for teaching it.

many of these students lack basic learning skills. They As a display of your motivation, it motivates them

don’t know how to focus their mind, read carefully,

(see Chapters Seven and Twelve).

take decent notes, think critically, study effectively,

•

Explain your reasons for being so interested in the

and write clearly. Without these skills, they may fall material, and make it relevant to your students’

short—not on the agency but on the capability to

concerns. Show how your field fits into the big

achieve an academic goal. To foster their success, we picture and how it contributes to society. In so

need to refer them to the campus resources that can

doing, you also become a role model for student

help them learn how to learn and to communicate

interest and involvement.

(see the Appendix) and to do what we can to

•

Make the course personal. Find out your students’

help them.

birthdays, and when one comes along, put up a

Many other specific suggestions for enhancing

slide with “Happy Birthday,

!” on it. Email

students’ sense of agency and capability, and therefore students with your concern if they haven’t been in

their expectancy to achieve, are set out in the next

class for a couple of days. Write students congrat-

section.

ulatory letters when they do well on a test.

•

Get to know your students. Ask them about their

majors, interests, and backgrounds. This infor-

STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING

mation will help you tailor the material to their

STUDENTS

concerns, and your personal interest in them will

inspire their personal loyalty to you (see Chapter

Happily, effective motivational techniques and effec-

Four).

tive teaching techniques greatly overlap. Of course,

•

Foster good lines of communication in both dire-

by definition, more motivated students want to learn

ctions. Convey your expectations and assessments,

more, so they achieve more. But it is also true that

but also invite your students’ feedback in the form

better teaching generates more rewarding learning

of classroom assessment exercises (see Chapter

experiences, which beget more motivation to learn.

Twenty-Eight) and some form of midterm

It is not surprising, then, that you motivate students evaluation (for example, your own questionnaire

using the same methods and formats that you do to

or some type of class interview conducted by

teach them effectively. To reach as many students as

your institution’s teaching center).

possible, use as many of the following strategies as

•

Use humor where appropriate. A joke or hu-

you can (Biggs, 2003; Cashin, 1979; Ericksen, 1974;

morous anecdote lightens the mood and has the

Gigliotti & Fitzpatrick, 1977; Hobson, 2002; Levin, synapse-building benefits of emotional intensity

56

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

(see Chapter One). Just be sensitive to context,

•

Use examples, anecdotes, and realistic case studies

setting, and audience.

freely. Many students learn inductively, experien-

•

Maintain classroom order and civility to earn your

tially, and concretely.

students’ respect as well as to create a positive

•

Use a variety of presentation methods to ac-

learning environment (see Chapter Seven).

commodate various learning styles (see Chapter

Twenty-Five).

Your Course

•

Teach by inquiry when possible. Students find it

•

Design, structure, and develop your course with

satisfying and intrinsically motivating to reason

care, and explain its organization and your ratio-

through a problem and discover underlying

nale for it to your students (see Chapter Two).

principles on their own (see Chapter Eighteen).

•

Allow students some voice in determining the

•

Use a variety of student-active teaching formats

course content, policies, conduct rules, and assign-

and methods, such as discussion, debates, press

ments. If they have input, they will feel more

conferences, symposia, role playing, simulations,

invested and responsible for their learning.

academic games, problem-based learning, the

•

Build in readings and activities that will move stu-

case method, problem solving, writing exercises,

dents beyond their simplistic dualistic beliefs about and so on—all covered in later chapters. These

your field (see Chapters One and Two). The con-

activities directly engage students in the material

stricted, naive view of “learning” as memorizing

and give them opportunities to achieve a level of

definitions and facts isn’t very motivating.

mastery for achievement’s sake.

•

Highlight the occupational potential of your sub-

•

Share strategies and tips for them to learn

ject matter. Inform students about the jobs and

your material, including reading, studying, and

careers that are available in your discipline, what

thinking about it. Also teach students relevant

attractions they hold, and how your course pre-

problem-solving strategies.

pares students for these opportunities. Whenever

•

Use cooperative learning formats. They are stud-

possible, link new knowledge to its usefulness in

ent active and add the motivational factor of

some occupation.

positive social pressure. But be sure you set up and

•

For numerous ways to motivate students to do

manage the groups properly (see Chapter Sixteen).

the readings on time, see Chapter Twenty-Three.

•

Bring the arts into your teaching to stir student

When students come prepared, you can fill class

emotions. This is a standard culture-learning

time with engaging and intrinsically motivating

strategy in the foreign languages, but it has far

activities.

broader application. In mathematics courses, you

can show the utility of concepts and equations in

Your Teaching

visual design and musical composition. In history,

•

Explain to your class why you have chosen the

anthropology, literature, and comparative politics

teaching methods, readings, assignments, in-class

courses, you can acquaint students with the art of

activities, policies, and assessment strategies that

the age or place. If possible, you can have them

you are using.

read native literature and listen to native music.

•

Help students realize that they can transfer skills

Such experiences give students an intuitive feel

they have learned in other courses into yours and

for other times and places.

vice versa.

•

Make the material accessible. Explain it in com-

•

Make the material and learning activities mean-

mon language, avoiding jargon where possible.

ingful and worthwhile to students by connecting

•

Hold students to high expectations. Refuse to ac-

them to their futures and the real world.

cept shoddy work. Give it back to them ungraded

Motivating Your Students

57

and tell them they have to do the assignment again

•

Assess students on how well they achieve the

at a high level of quality to get credit.

learning outcomes you set for them, and remind

•

Use Lewes’s progressive behaviorist method to

them that this is what you are doing.

overcome your students’ aversion to the material

•

Allow students options for demonstrating their

and reinforce their thoughtful contributions to

learning, such as choices in projects and other

discussion.

major assignments.

•

Design authentic assignments and activities—those

Assignments and Tests

that give students practice in their future occupa-

•

Reinforce the idea that all students can improve

tional and citizenship activities.

their cognitive and other abilities with practice and

•

Give assignments that have students reflect on their

are in control of their academic fates. In other

progress. For example, have students write a learn-

words, build up their sense of self-efficacy and

ing analysis of their first test in which they appraise their belief in an internal locus of control.

how they studied and how they can improve their

•

Provide many and varied opportunities for graded

studying.

assessment so that no single assessment counts too

•

Evaluate work by an explicit rubric (a specific set

much toward the final grade.

of criteria with descriptions of performance stan-

•

Give students plenty of opportunity to practice

dards) that students can study and ask questions

performing your learning outcomes before you

about before they tackle an assignment.

grade them on the quality of their performance.

•

Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading.

•

Sequence your learning outcomes and assessments

Make tests fair, which means consonant with your

to foster student success.

learning outcomes, topical emphases, and previous

•

Give students practice tests.

quizzes and assignments. Tests should be a means

•

Provide review sheets that tell students what cog-

of showing students what they have mastered, not

nitive operations they will have to perform with

what they haven’t.

key concepts on the tests. In other words, write

•

Give students prompt and constant feedback

out the learning outcomes you will be testing

on their performance, as well as early feedback on

them on.

stages and drafts of major assignments.

•

While students must acquire some facts and termi-

•

Accentuate the positive in grading. Be free with

nology to master the basics of any discipline, focus

praise and constructive in criticism and suggestions

your tests and assignments on their conceptual un-

for improvement. Acknowledge improvements

derstanding and ability to apply the material, and

made. Confine negative comments to the parti-

prepare them for the task accordingly. Facts are

cular performance, not the performer.

only tools with which to construct broader con-

cepts and are thus means to a goal, not goals in

•

Let students assess themselves. Of course, you must

themselves.

teach them how to do this first.

•

Set realistic performance goals, and help students

•

Show your students instances of peers who have

achieve them by encouraging them to set their

succeeded.

own reasonable goals. Striving to exceed a per-

•

Reduce the stress level of tests by lowering the

sonal best is a mighty motivator.

stakes—for example: Test early and often. Drop

•

Design assignments that are appropriately chal-

the lowest quiz or test score. Let students write

lenging given the experience and aptitude of the

explanations for their multiple-choice and true-

class. Those that are either too easy or stressfully

false item answers. Provide chances for them to

difficult are counterproductive.

earn back some of their lost points.

58

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Use criterion-referenced grading instead of

ignored or interrupted and their correct answers

norm-referenced grading (see Chapter Thirty-

merely accepted (Hall & Sandler, 1982; Krupnick,

One). The former system allows all the students

1985; Sadker & Sadker, 1992).

in a class to get high grades.

No doubt classrooms have become more equi-

•

Use contract grading for some of your assign-

table over recent years. But this progress began as

ments or your entire course. Contract grading (or

instructors became aware of the unconscious dynam-

contract learning) means assigning grades ac-

ics just described. The following guidelines translate cording to how well students fulfill certain work

this awareness into behavior (Guo & Jamal, 2007;

requirements (as specified in the syllabus or an

Jones, 2004; Toombs & Tierney, 1992):

appendix to it)—not according to what grade

they aspire to earn. To get higher grades, they

•

Create a safe climate for the expression of different have to successfully complete either more work

points of view. Set ground rules for civil discussion that shows evidence of more learning or more

in class, and intervene if any students act disre-

challenging work that shows evidence of more

spectfully to others (see Chapter Seven).

advanced learning. Under these conditions, stu-

•

Give attention to all students as equally as possible.

dents are often more motivated to learn because

After asking a question, lengthen your wait time

they have a greater sense of choice of assignments,

by ten to fifteen seconds to allow more students

self-determination, and responsibility for their

to mentally prepare their responses before you

grade, as well as less fear about creative risk taking call on anyone. This will help you broaden

and grade anxiety (see Chapter Thirty-One).

participation.

•

Give extra credit or bonus points (or the chance to

•

Praise students equally for equal-quality responses.

earn back lost points) only for work that depends

•

Use nonstereotypical examples in presentations. If

on students’ having done their regular assigned

you use a female in an example, make her a sci-

work. For example, Golding (2008) increased her

entist, an accountant, or a surgeon rather than a

class attendance and on-time homework turn-ins

nurse, a teacher, or a secretary.

by giving students bonus problems to work on at

•

When possible, integrate course content that in-

the beginning of class in exchange for their as-

cludes the contributions and perspectives of both

signed homework problems.

genders and all cultural, ethnic, and racial groups

that may be represented in your classes.

•

Use gender-neutral language. Try to avoid using

EQUITY IN THE CLASSROOM

the pronouns he and him exclusively when discussing people in general.

Equity and its opposite have a powerful impact on

•

Use pedagogical strategies that appeal to multiple

student motivation, and thus achievement. Not that

learning styles (see Chapter Twenty-Five). When

instructors purposely show favoritism, but research

possible, allow students to choose the mode in

documents that some have, however unconsciously.

which you will assess their learning (paper, poster,

K–12 teachers have sometimes praised (or at least

Web page, video, oral presentation, art form, con-

have failed to punish) boys for being aggressive but

cept or mind map, and so on).

have discouraged girls from acting similarly. Many

•

Resist falling into reverse discrimination. Do not

college instructors have expressed this same bias by

give inordinate attention to minority and disabled

allowing males more time to respond to discussion

students, as this may appear to reflect your expec-

questions and giving disproportionate approval to

tation of their failure.

males’ marginal answers. Females, as well as minority

•

Discretely ask your students with disabilities and

and disabled students, have been more likely to be

non-English-speaking backgrounds whether you

Motivating Your Students

59

can do something in class to make their life easier,

The “Inclusive Instructing” section in Chapter

such as facing the class when you are talking.

One and all of Chapter Thirteen on discussion offer

•

Be sensitive to difficulties your students may have

many more suggestions for ensuring equity in the

in understanding you. International, English as a

classroom. Equity is really about increasing and broad-Second Language, and hearing-impaired students

ening student participation, not only in discussion but may have trouble with idiomatic expressions and

in higher education and beyond. In fact, it is a by-

accents. Ask such students privately if they do, and

product of the best practices in teaching, so just about urge them to watch your lips and to request clari-every chapter in this book provides recommendations

fication.

that, at least indirectly, enhance equity.

P A R T 2

MANAGING YOUR

COURSES

C H A P T E R 6

Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

Asyoupreparetoteachacourse—classroom, andmisconceptions.Thelegalambiguitiesonlyfeed online, or hybrid—you will likely bump into

our fears of what might happen to us if we were actu-

the issue of copyright. No doubt you will

ally caught by the copyright enforcers (whoever they

want to assign, play, or show works of other peo-

may be) violating their rules, even unknowingly.

ple beyond the required books, CDs, and DVDs you

The laws, guidelines, and enforcement policies

expect your students to buy.

are not well publicized in the academic world and

If so, you have just entered the through-the-

may surprise you. Many of them are highly technical,

looking-glass world of “fair use,” “educational pur-

make questionable sense, and are frankly difficult to poses,” and other such Cheshire categories that make

absorb and remember. Those governing newer tech-

most of us instructors think twice before we press the nologies also change as lawsuits are resolved and the start button on a copying machine or even consider

U.S. Copyright Office issues new regulations and ex-

showing a videotape in class. This is the unwieldy

emptions, some of which have expiration dates.

wonderland in which the only legally correct answer

All of the legal information in this chapter

to your simplest query may be “probably,” “unlikely,”

comes ultimately from Title 17 of the United States

and “it depends on the specific case.” For example,

Code, which includes the Copyright Act of 1976

Q: Is a classroom a public place? (This issue may af-and its subsequent amendments—literally dozens

fect the legality of showing a videotape in class.) A: of them. The Conference on Fair Use (CONFU,

Experts disagree and the courts have not yet settled

1995–1997), the Digital Millennium Copyright Act

the issue.

of 1998 (DMCA, one of the amendments to the

In the absence of simple, clear rules of thumb, it

1976 law), and the Technology Harmonization and

is little wonder that we tend to pick up copyright law Education Act of 2002 (TEACH Act, another such

by word of mouth—and wind up swapping myths

amendment) set the guidelines for multimedia use

63

64

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

and online and distance learning, some of which

a notice, those published on or after March 1, 1989,

have an ambiguous legal status. I focus on the fair use are protected even without one. Third, changing

exemptions that are granted for educational purposes.

someone else’s copyrighted work here and there will

Laws, statutes, and guidelines are written to

not make it legally yours. In fact, such action may

obfuscate, so credit is due those who interpreted

make you doubly liable: for infringement of copying

them and served as invaluable factual sources for this right and of the copyright holder’s modification right.

chapter: Brinson and Radcliffe (1996), Davidson

Finally, flattering or showcasing a work is not

(2008), Emett and New (1997), Foster (2008a),

likely to allay the copyright owner’s objections to your Harper (2001), Jordan (1996), Nemire (2007), and

free use of the work. This is especially true of multi-Orlans (1999).

media works; their producers view licenses as a new

source of income. Freelance writers, music publishers, and musical performers have successfully sued major

WHERE COPYRIGHT DOES

companies like the New York Times for the unau-AND DOES NOT APPLY

thorized publication or distribution of their work on online computer services.

Copyright law does not protect facts, ideas, discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, designs that FREE USE: FAIR USE, FACTS, AND

identify a source of goods, and some U.S. govern-

PUBLIC DOMAIN

ment publications (you must check on each one).

This doesn’t mean we don’t cite the sources of our

“Free use” means no license or written permission

facts, other people’s ideas, and certain key phrases, for from the copyright holder is required to copy, dis-example. We just need not ask permission or pur-

tribute, or electronically disseminate the work. How-

chase a license to use them. Many inventions are pro-

ever, whether a given case qualifies depends on three tected by patent law, yet another realm of intellectual rather gray criteria: (1) your use is “fair use,” (2) the property.

material you wish to use is factual or an idea, and (3) Copyright law does protect creative works,

the work you wish to use is in the public domain.

whether literary (fiction and nonfiction), musical

In general, fair use means use for noncommer-

(including lyrics), dramatic (including accompanying

cial purposes and specifically for purposes of teaching, music), choreographic, sculptural, pictorial, graphic, scholarship, research, criticism, comment, parody, and architectural, audiovisual (including motion pictures), news reporting. The courts are most likely to find fair and sound recorded.

use where the copied work is a factual as opposed to a creative work. However, no legal guidelines are available to distinguish factual material or an idea from

COMMON COPYRIGHT

something else; determinations are made on a case-

MISCONCEPTIONS

by-case basis. Another consideration is whether the

new work poses market or readership competition for

Let me dispel some popular misconceptions. First,

the copyrighted work.

giving credit to the author of a work is not a way

The amount and the significance of the pro-

around or substitute for copyright law compliance.

tected work used also figures into the determination

All a citation exempts you from is plagiarism. Second, of fair use. Use of a tiny amount of the work should

the absence of a copyright notice does not mean

not raise concerns unless it is substantial in terms of the work is not protected. While most works have

importance—such as the heart of the copied work.

Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

65

For instance, a magazine article that used 300

or newspaper; a short story, essay, or poem; a dia-

words from a 200,000-word autobiography written

gram, graph, chart, drawing, cartoon, or picture from by President Gerald Ford was found to infringe

a book, periodical, or newspaper.

the copyright on the autobiography. Even though

the copied material was only a small part of the

Multiple Copying

autobiography, it included some of the most powerful

You may make multiple copies—specifically, one

passages in the work.

copy per student in a course—without first obtaining

Public domain is a clearer legal concept but

permission if the work meets the criteria of brevity, is sometimes redefined. If published in the United

spontaneity, and cumulative effect and if each copy

States, a work is now in the public domain if (1)

contains a copyright notice.

it was published on or before 1923, (2) ninety-five

The guidelines define the “brevity” criterion in

years have elapsed since its publication date if it was this way: (1) an entire poem printed on no more than

published between 1923 and 1977, or (3) seventy

two pages or an excerpt from a longer poem, not to

years have elapsed since the author’s death if it

exceed 250 words copied in either case; (2) an entire was published after 1977. However, if a work was

article, story, or essay of fewer than 2,500 words or published between 1923 and 1963 and the copyright

an excerpt of fewer than 1,000 words or less than 10

owner did not renew the copyright after the twenty-

percent of the work, whichever is less, but in either eight-year term that once applied, the work has come

event, a minimum of 500 words to be copied; or (3)

into public domain. Corporate works published after

one chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon, or pic-

1977 enter the public domain ninety-five years after

ture per book or periodical issue. Multiple copying

publication.

meets the “spontaneity” criterion when you do not

The fair use exemption does not permit

have a reasonable length of time to request and re-

unlimited copying and distribution. The “privilege”

ceive permission to copy. What a “reasonable length

is highly restricted by “guidelines” with legal force, of time” may be is not specified.

though they are often ambiguous and arcane, and

The “cumulative effect” is considered accept-

they do not cover all situations. They were negotiated ably small (permission not required) when your copy-among educators, authors, and publishers. Of course,

ing is for only one course, and you do not make

no copyright exemption excuses you from citing and

multiple copies in more than nine instances per term

crediting your sources.

per course. Furthermore, you may not make multiple

copies of more than one short poem, article, story,

essay, or two excerpts from the same author or more

PRINTED TEXT

than three from the same collective work or periodical volume in one term.

While you may find it restrictive, print media is the If you want to copy and distribute entire or mul-realm that most liberally allows fair use. It is, of course, tiple works that in any way violate the rules above,

the oldest realm.

you must first obtain permission.

Single Copying

Copying Short Works

As an instructor, you may make single copies, in-

Short works such as children’s books are often fewer

cluding a transparency or slide, of the following for than 2,500 words, and you may not copy them as a

teaching purposes without obtaining prior permis-

whole. All you may reproduce without permission

sion: a chapter of a book; an article from a periodical is an excerpt of no more than two published pages

66

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

containing not more than 10 percent of the total

are taking images from a collection, you may use no

words in the text.

more than fifteen images or 10 percent of those in the collection, whichever is fewer.

Additional ‘‘Privileges’’ and Prohibitions

If an image is not designated for sale or license,

you may digitize and use it if you obtain prior per-

You are allowed to incorporate text into your mul-

mission and limit access (password-protect) to enrolled timedia teaching presentations, as can your students

students and other instructors of the course. Furtherinto their multimedia projects.

more, your students may download, print out, and

Notwithstanding the guidelines above, your in-

transmit it for personal academic use, including course tentions and the specific work also come into play.

assignments and portfolios, for up to two years. You

You may not make copies under these conditions to

may also use the image at a professional conference.

create, replace, or substitute for anthologies, compila-An alternative to obtaining permission to show

tions, or collective works; substitute for replacement copyrighted visual materials is to take and display

or purchase of “consumable” works such as work-

photographs of them. This option is legal for fair use books, exercises, standardized tests, or answer sheets as long as the quality of the photographic reproduc-or of the same item term after term; or if you charge tions is lower than that of commercial reproductions, students beyond the copying cost or on direction of

such as professionally produced slides and prints—in

a higher authority. In addition, you may make copies

other words, as long as the amateur photographs can’t for your students in only nine instances per term.

compete in the same market (University of Minnesota

Libraries, 2007).

Course Packets

Academic art librarians know where to locate

You must limit the materials to single chapters, single specific pictorial, graphic, artistic, and architectural articles from a journal issue, and small parts of a work, works and what the restrictions for their use may be.

such as several illustrations, charts, or graphs. Those The library may already have permission or a license

who sell the packets must put copyright notices on

to display certain works. You can find unrestricted fair the originals you provide and limit sales to students use materials (no permission required) at the Creative enrolled in the course for that term. These packets

Commons (www.creativecommons.org).

are being replaced by course management systems and

electronic reserves, which are governed by somewhat

IN-CLASS PERFORMANCES

different rules (see below).

Assuming your institution is accredited, you and your students can freely show videos, play music, recite po-VISUAL MATERIALS

etry, read and perform plays, and project slides in a classroom setting. You can show websites or videos

The guidelines in this section apply only to pho-

off the Web in a live class. None of these actions re-tographs and illustrations not in the public domain,

quires permission. Copying sheet music, however, is

which never require permission to use. However,

restricted to out-of-print music and performances “in if the one you want to use is part of a copyrighted

an emergency.”

collection, you should obtain permission for use

You can also play, without prior permission, a

from the copyright holder. Go to www.mpa.org or

DVD, videotape, or musical CD (or excerpts from

www.loc.gov to check.

it) in class that you have legally bought or rented.

You may use entire single images but no more

But here is the murky part: if a videotape or DVD

than five by a single artist or photographer. If you

carries the warning “For Home Use Only,” the

Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

67

law is unclear on whether you may show it in your

Broadcast Programming (Major National

classroom. If the classroom is considered a “public

and Local Stations)

place,” you may not, but the courts have not resolved These guidelines apply only to off-the-air recording

this issue. Legal experts reason that you probably can by nonprofit educational institutions, which are re-because instructors are clearly permitted to display

sponsible for ensuring compliance:

or perform works in face-to-face teaching situations.

Of course, you may show any rented videotape or

•

DVDs or videotapes may be kept for only forty-

DVD that has been cleared for public presentation

five calendar days after the recording date. After

as long as it serves a purely instructional objective.

this time, they must be erased.

Even the hint of entertainment purposes, such as the

•

The recording may be shown to students only

presence of nonstudents in the classroom, can raise a during the first ten class days after the recording

legal flag.

date and may be repeated only once for reinforce-

Movie studios have built the home video and

ment.

DVD industry into a multibillion-dollar business,

•

Off-the-air recordings may be made only at the

in part by strictly enforcing the distinction between request of an individual instructor and not in aninstruction and entertainment. To illustrate, in 1996

ticipation of an instructor’s request. The same in-

the Motion Picture Licensing Corporation, a Los

structor can request that the program be recorded

Angeles copyright policing agency representing the

only once.

studios, sent threatening letters to fifty thousand day

•

Duplicate copies may be made if several instructors

care centers across the nation. The letters demanded

request the recording of the same program.

up to $325 per year for what they termed “a

•

After the first ten classes allowed for showing, the

public-performance video license” for showing

recording may be used only for evaluation, such as

children’s videos (for example, Pooh and Scrooge) to for a test.

their “public” of toddlers. Apparently Hollywood

•

Off-the-air recordings may not be edited or com-

does not regard its standard products as educational

bined with other recordings to create a new work

and therefore exempt from licensing fees under the

or an anthology.

fair use (Bourland, 1996).

•

All videotapes, including copies, must contain a

The rules are also ambiguous about whether you

copyright notice when broadcast.

can record a television program off-the-air at home

and then show it in class. If it is a commercial pro-

gram, some experts consider this illegal, while others Public Television

recommend that you demonstrate compliance with

The Public Broadcasting Service, the Public Tele-

the spirit of the law by following the guidelines for vision Library, the Great Plains National Instruc-campus media units in the next section.

tional Television Library, and the Agency for Ins-

tructional Television have somewhat less restric-

tive rules for off-the-air recording for educational

purposes:

RECORDING BROADCAST

PROGRAMMING

•

Recordings may be made by instructors or stu-

dents in accredited, nonprofit educational institu-

The guidelines given here specify what educational

tions.

institutions (campus media units) can record off-the-

•

Recordings may be used only for instruction in a

air for educational purposes without obtaining a per-

classroom, lab, or auditorium but are not restricted

mission or license from the copyright holder.

to one classroom or one instructor.

68

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

The use of recordings is restricted to one institu-

contend that fair use protection makes permissions

tion and may not be shared outside it.

unnecessary (Foster, 2008a). Libraries, however, tend

•

Length of allowed retention varies.

to err on the conservative side and routinely obtain

permissions.

Probably your easiest alternative is providing

Cable Channel Programs

your class with links to materials that are already

Cable channels require you to ask permission to show

available online through your institution’s library,

any of their programming, even for fair use purposes, which already has a license or permission to make the but instructors may be allowed to keep their record-materials available. But what if you want to link to

ings for much longer. The rules vary by program.

sites not in your library? Here again the law is cloudy.

Some say you “may” need the permission of the

website owner, and others claim you don’t. Another

ONLINE/ELECTRONIC MATERIALS

safe bet is to use vendor-provided digital content that AND DISTANCE LEARNING

is sold along with many textbooks (course cartridges, CDs, DVDs). Because the cost includes the copyright

Course management systems and electronic reserves

license, no restrictions apply to its use.

have pretty much replaced course packets and hard

The legal area surrounding copyright and fair

copy library reserves, and millions of courses are deuse of electronic materials is the most volatile as well livered in part or entirely online. As with print, online as the most restrictive. Recall that in the traditional content must be accessible only to the students en-face-to-face classroom, you and your students can lis-rolled in the class and only for that term. But because ten to music, read poems aloud, perform plays, display these materials are digitized, the fair use laws govern-slides, or play excerpts from a DVD, all without prior ing them are somewhat different, often murky, and

permission, as long as the purpose is educational. Bemore restrictive than those governing course packets.

tween 1997 and 2002, you and your students could

For starters, the readings on e-reserve should not

not do any of these things electronically under fair use comprise more than a small amount of all the assigned protection. The CONFU guidelines required you to

reading for the course. As specified in the Digital Mil-obtain a license. Finally, Congress closed this odd le-lennium Copyright Act of 1998, copyright-protected

gal gap in mid-2002 when it passed the TEACH Act

digital materials also include a wide range of content you might not expect: print and electronic books,

without debate (after the bill languished for an entire analog and digital musical recordings, websites, works year in the House Judiciary Committee). As the rules

embedded in websites, print and email messages and

stand now, you may without prior permission down-

attachments, and possibly even databases. In addition, load images from the Internet for your teaching, and

the Technology Harmonization and Education Act of

students may do so for their projects. You may do the 2002 requires instructors to add a legal notice in your same for sound and video files, but they are subject

syllabus that online materials “may” be copyright

to severe length limitations: videos to three minutes protected.

or 10 percent, whichever is shorter, and music to

Most legal and library authorities argue that you

10 percent of the composition, up to a maximum of

or your institution’s library must obtain permission

thirty seconds. The same length limits apply if you or to post any copyrighted digital course content, even

your students take excerpts from a lawfully purchased when it is available elsewhere on the Internet, is being or rented videotape, DVD, or CD. Permission is reused in a course for the first time, or is supplemental, quired only when you or a student wants to exceed

unless you get your general counsel’s approval to skip these length limits or to post or repost any of the files obtaining permission. In fact, some university lawyers online.

Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

69

Don’t even think about trying to get permission

Or you can request a license of the copyright

to put an entire commercially produced motion pic-

holder in writing, giving the same precise information ture or musical CD on electronic reserve or online.

as above. Licenses are often required to show a work

This would require a very costly license.

or portion of a work or to include some nontrivial

Electronic copyright law is unsettled, ambigu-

portion of it in your own scholarship or multimedia

ous, and subject to challenge from both commercial

production. Licenses always entail fees, but they may and educational interests. So stay tuned to the news

be negotiable.

media, especially the Chronicle of Higher Education and the websites listed at the end of this chapter, to keep abreast of the latest legal developments and clarifica-tions. Another good idea is to make materials available HOW COPYRIGHT VIOLATIONS

in ways that avoid potential trouble. For example, reARE ACTUALLY HANDLED

fer your students to URLs rather than incorporating

Internet-based text, images, and performances into

So what if you forgot to put a long, important journal your online course materials. Also make the most of

article on e-reserve, and you decide to make copies of any vendor-provided digital content that may accom-the whole thing and hand them out to your students

pany your textbooks.

in class? What penalties might you face?

The laws state that you face a judgment of up

to $100,000 for each willful infringement , and igno-OBTAINING PERMISSION

rance of the law won’t get you off. What may get you

OR A LICENSE

off is a convincing argument that you were acting in

good faith, believing on reasonable grounds that your Perhaps you wish to reproduce, display, or play a work case qualified as fair use. Your institution will probably or a portion of a work that exceeds the length limits defend you if you follow its fair use policies.

or otherwise violates the guidelines just discussed. Or However, the law doesn’t always operate by the

perhaps your campus library or copy center cannot

law. In the educational arena, institutions, not indi-obtain the necessary permissions or licenses in time

viduals, are usually sued, and very few of these have for you or your students to use the work. You and

been over the past several decades. Obviously colleges, your students may follow these procedures to obtain

universities, school systems, and private K–12 schools them on your own.

have much deeper pockets than their teaching staff.

Request in writing (email is okay) the permis-

So copyright enforcers send them threatening letters

sion of the copyright holder (which is not necessarily every once in a while to remind them of the law

the author or creator) to reprint, display, or post onand potential penalties. Sometimes a threat is based

line, identifying the exact portion of the work, the

on a tip that violations have occurred. (Some en-

number of copies you wish to make and distribute

forcement agencies maintain tip hotlines.) But even

or the planned location on the Internet, the expected in this case, the designated agent-for-service receives readership or viewership, and the purpose or planned

not a summons but a cease-and-desist order. Educa-

use of the work (for example, instruction in a given

tional institutions have generally induced its violators course for a specific term at a given institution). A to cease and desist immediately and have avoided fur-permission granted for classroom use applies only to

ther legal action.

one course during one term. Or you can contact the

Historically, the most aggressive copyright en-

Copyright Clearance Center at www.copyright.com.

forcer has been the Software Publishers Association,

It offers an electronic service that usually obtains your which patrols software pirating (installation or repro-permission in a day or two.

duction without site licenses), and even it confines

70

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

its efforts to organizations and stays out of people’s 20559–6000; Public information phone services, 8:30

at-home offices.

a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through

Corporations, which can rarely claim fair use

Friday: (202) 707-3000, (202) 707-5959. Circulars

protection, have never enjoyed such gentle treatment.

and forms are available free at www.copyright

But then they have the most to gain financially by

.gov/circs.

copyright violations. The copyright cops have en-

Copyright Website LLC: www.benedict.com.

sured that they also have the most to lose. So be

Copyright Clearance Center Campus Guide to

aware that publishing houses, which are corporations

Copyright Compliance for Academic Institutions:

no matter how academic they may be, interpret fair

www.copyright.com/Services/copyrightoncampus.

use very conservatively (Orlans, 1999).

Indiana University Information Policy Office: http://

copyright.iu.edu/about.

FOR FURTHER AND FUTURE

Cornell University Copyright Information Center:

REFERENCE

www.copyright.cornell.edu/resources.

Hall

Davidson

Copyright

Resources:

www

These resources provide further detail on copyright

.halldavidson.com/downloads.html#anchor923173.

protections, restrictions, and exemptions, as well as the latest changes in the laws and guidelines. All web-University of Minnesota Libraries Copyright Infor-

sites were retrieved November 18, 2009:

mation and Education: www.lib.umn.edu/copyright.

University of Texas System Crash Course in Copy-

U.S. Copyright Office: www.copyright.gov; Ad-

right: www.utsystem.edu/OGC/intellectualproperty

dress: 101 Independence Ave. S.E., Washington, DC

/cprtindx.htm.

C H A P T E R 7

Preventing and Responding to

Classroom Incivility

Classroomincivilityhasbecomeanationaland 1. Talkinginclass even international problem in higher edu-2. Noisily packing up early

cation. The topic includes preventing and

3. Arriving late and leaving early

sanctioning disciplinary problems and maintaining

4. Cheating

a controlled, orderly environment that is conducive

5. Wasting class time—a general category spanning

to learning. Knowing preventive measures and con-

being unprepared for class, dominating discussion,

structive responses to disruption can greatly enhance repeating questions, and asking for a review of the

your relationship with your students because even

last class meeting

minor incivilities can mar the atmosphere, break your 6. Showing general disrespect and poor manners to-concentration, and really get under your skin. And

ward the instructor and other students

losing your temper is not an option. How effectively

you control your classes may even affect your life in Instructors surveyed at Indiana University,

general. Boice (2000) found this ability to be the

Bloomington, also identified these student behaviors

best single predictor of junior faculty persistence and as unacceptable (Royce, 2000):

success in an academic career.

7. Eating in class

8. Acting bored or apathetic

9. Making disapproving groans

WHAT IS INCIVILITY?

10. Making sarcastic remarks or gestures

11. Sleeping in class

Students surveyed at Wright State University cited six 12. Not paying attention

common classroom behaviors that they found annoy-

13. Not answering a direct question

ing (Ballantine & Risacher, 1993):

14. Using a computer in class for nonclass purposes

71

72

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

15. Letting cell phones and pagers go off in class

they have become more transient and impersonal,

16. Cutting class

generating an atmosphere of distrust and indifference 17. Dominating discussion

(Baldwin, 1997–1998; Leatherman, 1996).

18. Demanding makeup exams, extensions, grade

Other changes have contributed as well. Col-

changes, or special favors

leges and universities have been working harder than

19. Taunting or belittling other students

ever before to retain students, so they now sanction

20. Challenging the instructor’s knowledge or cred-

only the most seriously offensive behaviors. Unfor-

ibility in class

tunately, the same is true in the K–12 system, which

21. Making harassing, hostile, or vulgar comments

does little to enforce discipline or nurture a love of to the instructor in class

learning. In addition, the factors that are associated 22. Making harassing, hostile, or vulgar comments

with classroom incivility have become more common

or physical gestures to the instructor outside class

in the academy: large classes and instructors who are 23. Sending the instructor inappropriate emails

young, female, and low status—adjuncts, lecturers,

24. Making threats of physical harm to the

and TAs (Royce, 2000). Large classes taught by

instructor.

low-status instructors are also often required courses, which breed incivility as well.

While the most extreme forms of incivility are

Kristensen (2007) offers a list of other reasons

rather rare, the Indiana University faculty reported

collected from several sources: the “dumbing down”

that all the other behaviors listed above occurred at of K–12 education, indifferent or indulgent parent-least “sometimes” in their classes (Royce, 2000).

ing, dysfunctional families, students living at home

We can always add a few, such as talking on a cell

and not maturing, media violence, upward mobility

phone, listening to music, coming to class in pajamas pressures in a weak economy, students’ indifference

or beachwear, putting on makeup, reading a newspa-

to learning, their sense of entitlement, and their conper or magazine, chewing and popping gum loudly,

sumer attitude.

doing work for another class, refusing to participate, This last reason deserves some elaboration

acting entitled, coming on sexually to the instructor because it has two facets. The first is students’ view or another student, and leaving trash in the classroom.

of higher education as a high-priced commodity that

But none of the above compares with the ultimate in-

they or their parents are purchasing. This attitude

civility we’ve been seeing with increasing frequency: feeds into their feelings of entitlement to good

faculty being murdered in cold blood. Whether ma-

grades; after all, they think, they bought them. The

jor or minor, these students behaviors were almost

second facet is students’ regard for faculty. From

unheard of up through the mid-1980s.

the consumers’ point of view, instructors are just

well-educated service workers who are supposed to

cater to students (Rice, Sorcinelli, & Austin, 2000).

WHY THE INCREASE?

In fact, despite their education, instructors aren’t very well-paid service workers either. No doubt the high

Over the past four decades, the academy has changed

valuation that the millennial generation places on a

in many ways that have no doubt exacerbated behav-

lucrative career and material possessions also lowers ioral and disciplinary problems. Increasing diversity its respect for faculty and for education.

has brought in many students who don’t share tradi-

Then again, the entire American culture has

tional academic values, norms, and communication

lost trust in and respect for authority in general. Too styles. The student-instructor chasm has also widened many business, religious, and political leaders have

as faculty have become older and increasingly special-proven themselves to be dishonest, greedy, immoral,

ized. In addition, as universities have grown in size, and indifferent to the interests of their customers,

Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

73

congregations, and constituencies. Moreover, they

corners and do minimal work for their grades? Is

have profited from their lack of integrity and corrupt it laid back, anything-goes, and permissive? If you

behavior. So while the public has grown cynical of

are a mature female, do you convey a sweet mater-

authority, some sectors, including many students, still nal image, specifically one of a protective and overly view these leaders as role models and believe that

nurturing pushover who will show endless mercy to-

corruption, dishonesty, and greed help people get

ward irresponsible student behavior? Or perhaps you

ahead. Therefore, this book devotes all of Chapter

project quite the opposite—that of a cold, distant,

Eight to preserving academic honesty.

condescending professor, possibly with a cynical atti-Another change in the culture has been in-

tude, a sarcastic sense of humor, an uncaring heart, or creasing informality in most forms of self-expression, a mean, critical streak? (Remember that students are

including dress, language, and behavior. This trend

very sensitive and prone to overinterpret small slights.) is evident in churches, restaurants, stores, offices, If your students perceive you as any of these types, you airports, and schools, as well as artistic reflections are likely to encounter a disproportionate amount of

of the culture, such as popular music, television,

classroom incivility. In the first four cases, many stu-and movies. A few decades ago, public and private

dents will feel free to take advantage of your apparent schools at all levels enforced strict dress codes for both vulnerability or tolerance and will walk all over you.

students and teachers. Similarly, offices permitted

In the last case, they will feel justified in returning only business suits, dresses, and skirts and blouses, all your seemingly “bad attitude” in kind.

with dress shoes. People expected and encouraged

Your students will see you as having one

displaying a sense of propriety in behavior much

persona or another, whether you put any energy into

more than they do today.

constructing one or not. This is a good part of the

Of course, that was then, and this is now. The

performance dimension of teaching (Carroll, 2003b).

rest of this chapter suggests strategies for minimizing So why not consciously project a persona that will

and responding to specific types of incivilities in and command students’ respect—and perhaps just a

out of the classroom. Of course, prevention is the pre-touch of fear—and inspire their trust and loyalty?

ferred outcome, but this behavior is not always in your Why not exude relaxed confidence, goodwill, and an

control. So acceptable ways to stop the behaviors are in-command, no-nonsense attitude—the elements of

also covered. Unfortunately, none of these strategies a successful faculty image? It is not difficult to do; all are absolutely foolproof given the unpredictability of it requires is certain concrete behaviors, some verbal human behavior. Still, your well-considered efforts at and some nonverbal. Whether or not you carry this

both prevention and response are likely to inspire the aura naturally, it is not dishonest to behave in ways respect of the vast majority of your students, as they that will make you more effective in the classroom.

too are bothered by their peers’ annoying behaviors

After all, aren’t we willing to do almost anything to and expect you to quell such distractions (Ballantine help our students learn?

& Risacher, 1993; Young, 2003).

Balancing Authority and Approachability

PREVENTING INCIVILITY: YOUR

Most students accept the authority of a tenure-track

CLASSROOM PERSONA

faculty member without question. But some students

are reluctant to accord the same respect to an adjunct, What kind of personality do you project in the class-a graduate student, a TA, or an instructor who

room? Is it at all weak, timid, and self-effacing? Is violates the traditional professorial stereotype of the it innocent and naive about students’ instrumental-mature, white male with an imposing stance and

ist attitudes toward education and their efforts to cut a low, deep voice. Clearly if you look young, are

74

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

physically small, have a relatively high voice, are

gender does not depress student evaluations of

nonwhite, or female, you may well encounter some

teaching in any consistent or significant way, it very student resistance. If you project any weakness,

well may in more male-dominated fields, such as

nervousness, softness, or too easy-going an attitude, engineering (Feldman, 1992, 1993; Marsh & Roach,

you’re likely to find students pushing the envelope

1997; Nilson & Lysaker, 1996).

with you, behaving discourteously, and expecting

Other instructors face the opposite problem of

special favors of you. A few of these simple strategies intimidating students. They can do so by too perfectly will add the air of authority to your persona and help matching the somewhat chilly professorial stereotype

you take stronger control of your classes (Nilson,

or by coming off as domineering. From your students’

1981):

viewpoint, you may fall in this category if you are

male and are some combination of very tall, physi-

•

Stand up in front of your class instead of sitting,

cally large, deep-voiced, rugged looking, serious and move around the room, and use broad gestures.

reserved, or have an aggressive or curt social style. The The dramatic effect is to make you appear larger

following behaviors can warm up your persona, mak-

than life. Increasing one’s apparent size is a com-

ing you seem more approachable and likable (Nilson,

mon aggressive and defensive posture throughout

1981):

the animal kingdom.

•

Try to deepen your voice slightly and to project

•

Assume a relaxed posture in the classroom. Sit

it farther by speaking from your diaphragm. Also

down or perch casually on the corner of a desk.

avoid ending a declarative sentence with a ques-

•

Speak more softly in class, as long as everyone can

tioning rise in pitch.

still hear you. Also interact with the class more,

•

Favor more formal dress to convey that you are

perhaps by tossing out more questions to answer

serious and business minded, especially if you are

or problems to solve.

female (Johnston, 2005; Roach, 1997).

•

Dress down slightly—for example, wear a loos-

•

Add an air of formality and dignity to your class-

ened tie and a sports jacket or a two-piece suit

room. For instance, address students by their last

rather than a three-piece suit.

names, and ask that they address you by your title

•

Chat casually with students before and after class

(Dr. or Professor) and last name.

so they can see you as friendly, warm, and person-

•

Refer in class to your own scholarship where ap-

able. Address students by their first names. (If you

propriate. This establishes you as an authority on

are a TA, consider asking them to call you by your

the subject and elevates you in your students’ eyes.

first name.) Consciously practice social immedia-

cies (see the next section).

Female instructors, in particular, must take

•

Smile whenever appropriate.

measures to reinforce their legitimacy and authority.

•

If you are a TA or a faculty member still taking

Students tend to underestimate the educational

courses, mention that you too are a student, so

attainment of female instructors, even controlling

you can identify with the academic demands they

for many other instructor characteristics (Miller & are facing.

Chamberlin, 2000). Students are also more likely

to challenge female and minority instructors about

their legitimacy, expertise, opinions, and teaching

Showing That You Care

methods (Moore, 1996; Turner & Myers, 2000). In

Wherever your persona falls on the authority-

addition, many students expect females to display

approachability continuum, you can help prevent

an empathetic softness that they think they can take

class incivility and conflict by practicing social

advantage of. While research shows that female

immediacies—that is, conveying both verbally and

Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

75

nonverbally that you care about your students as

policies regarding attendance, tardiness, class par-

learners and as people. Like everyone else in the

ticipation, extension requests, missed assignment

world, students want to be loved on some level. You

deadlines, and makeup exams (see Chapter Three).

can verbally express, for example, concern for their

You may want to add statements forbidding sleeping

learning and future success, high expectations for

in class, eating in class, side conversations, live

them, interest in their activities outside class, empathy cell phones and pagers, and displays of disrespect

with their learning challenges and stress, and your

for fellow students. (Focus on the most common

availability to help them outside class. You can also incivilities you encounter; don’t make the list too

learn and use their names. Nonverbally, you can

long.) Then be prepared to ask any offenders to stop

communicate your respect for and interest in them by

the behaviors immediately or leave the room.

making regular eye contact, speaking with energy and

You may prefer to emphasize appropriate be-

enthusiasm, listening intently without interrupting,

haviors rather than disruptive ones. If so, express your standing with an open body posture, and smiling

rules in a positive way—for example, “Students are

frequently. When students raise a problem in the

expected to hand in assignments on time” rather than

course, you can clarify your course objectives and

“Students will be penalized for late assignments.”

schedule and enlist students to help resolve the issue.

Even so, you must specify the consequences for

All of these instructor behaviors, along with

violating the rules.

teaching interactively, are associated with more civil Some instructors have reduced incivilities

student conduct and greater student attentiveness

by having their students collectively draw up a

in class (Meyers, 2003; Meyers, Bender, Hill, &

classroom-conduct contract, or set of rules for behav-Thomas, 2006; Wilson & Taylor, 2001). They

ior to which they will agree. Here’s the procedure.

may even override the negative effects of being

On the first day of class, lead a discussion on the

female, young, less experienced, and a member of a

student behaviors that genuinely bother the members

racial/ethnic minority group (Meyers et al., 2006).

of the class. As a member, you can add one or two

behaviors to the list. Then from the notes you take,

Setting Ground Rules

type up a contract for all students to sign at the next All the literature on classroom management considers

class meeting in which they promise not to engage in

setting ground rules essential (Baldwin, 1997–1998;

the disruptive behaviors listed. If someone refuses to Ballantine & Risacher, 1993; Boice, 1996; Brooks, sign it, let the other students decide what to do; after 1987; Feldmann, 2001; Gonzalez & Lopez, 2001;

all, it’s their contract. Instructors who use contracts Nilson, 1981; Sorcinelli, 1994). Most students

claim that for the rest of the semester, students

respond very well to them; they want to know

pretty much police themselves, keeping even minor

what is expected of them. In addition, ground rules

violations to a minimum (Baldwin, 1997–1998;

convey that you are in command and no-nonsense

Ballantine & Risacher, 1993). Some institutions

Therefore, announce on the first day, especially in a publish a student code of conduct, but students often large class, exactly what disruptive behaviors you will don’t buy into what they don’t feel they own.

not tolerate in your course—and why. Your most

A variation on a class contract starts out as a

convincing reason—and one that is research based—is

student bill of rights and leads to a larger life lesson that such behaviors annoy the other students in the

(Nilson & Jackson, 2004). Students should have no class. This conveys your goodwill. (Reiterate this

problem coming up with rights for themselves, and

reason when handling a noisy disruption.)

you should ensure these are written down. A few will

Some rules also belong in your syllabus,

quickly realize, however, that rights come with re-

especially your expectations and any grade-relevant

sponsibilities. In fact, each right comes with at least

76

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

one responsibility. For instance, the right to be eval-Modeling Correct Behavior

uated fairly obligates students to hand in work that

Sometimes classroom incivility starts with the in-

accurately reflects their best abilities. The related right structor’s behavior toward the students, such as being to receive timely and consistent feedback from the in-rude, sarcastic, condescending, indifferent, insensitive, structor requires that they hand in work on time and

or inflexible (Boice, 1996; Gonzalez & Lopez,

use that feedback in improving their work. The right

2001). Your efforts to model good manners do not

to be safe to express their opinions in turn commits

guarantee that students will always imitate you. But

them to respect the opinions of other students and the students will consider your standards and require-instructor. For a final example, the right to a well-

ments fairer if your behavior reflects them, and no

organized course with well-organized, well-prepared

doubt more students will honor them. For instance,

classes obligates students to come to class prepared to if you don’t want students to interrupt one another

make the most of the course. Because students gen-

during discussions, judiciously try not to interrupt

erate these rights and responsibilities themselves, they students yourself. If you value punctuality, come to

are likely to police themselves, as in the case of a con-class ahead of the bell and complete your board work

tract. When they don’t, all you have to do to enforce before class begins. If you want assignments turned

the rules is to smile at the offenders and gently remind in on time, return papers promptly. If you expect

them by saying contract or bill of rights.

students to come to your office hours, keep to your

schedule faithfully. These constitute instructor rights Rewarding Civil Behavior

and matching responsibilities.

However, students may have somewhat different

As we saw in the case of motivating students

conceptions of unacceptable faculty behavior than we

(Chapter Five), applying behaviorism wisely can

do. The Teaching Assistant Program at Michigan State

change student behavior for the better. Of course,

University conducted a small ( N = 50) but reveal-setting ground rules and course policies and ensuring ing survey of undergraduate perceptions of irritating violators face unpleasant consequences, whether

instructor behaviors. More than 20 percent of the stu-social pressure or lost points, represent the negative dents mentioned these six:

reinforcement and punishment side of the equation.

But what about using positive reinforcement, which

is more powerful than negative reinforcement and

1. Showing up late for class

punishment, to discourage such violations?

2. Not showing up for office hours

In addition to noticing and sanctioning mis-

3. Making students feel stupid (put down, inferior,

behavior, we can notice and reward good behavior.

dumb) or showing lack of respect

We can compliment a class when everyone arrives

4. Not getting to know students

on time or when attendance is especially high. (This

5. Writing on the board while blocking the infor-

shows that you do see these things.) When a student

mation or talking to the board

is often late, we should not only correct the behavior 6. Not following the syllabus

by speaking to her in private about it but also thank her when she does arrive on time. When a noisy class

Less frequently mentioned were not preparing

quiets down, express your appreciation. Research

for class, being disorganized, giving inadequate expla-shows that these little positive reinforcers are effective nations of difficult material, not controlling the class, at the workplace as well as in the classroom. They

assigning busywork, lecturing too quickly, speaking

also help create a pleasant and fruitful learning

too softly or in a monotone, reading lecture notes,

atmosphere (Daniels, 2000; Daniels & Daniels, 2004; starting class early and ending it late, not grading

Wiesman, 2006, 2007).

assigned work, and assigning too much homework

Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

77

(Teaching Assistant Program, Michigan State Univer-

platform (public speaking) skills both projects a

sity, n.d.). We may not think of talking to the board, strong persona—one who is relaxed, confident, in

straying from the syllabus, or talking fast as offensive, command, and no-nonsense—and enables you to

but it is to students. In fact, after a first-day-of-class command student attention and engagement for

discussion of what they shouldn’t do, we should ask longer periods of time. These skills come up briefly

them in turn what they don’t want us to do.

again in Chapter Twelve because they strongly

From the students’ point of view, defining

influence the motivational and teaching effectiveness and modeling correct behavior means meeting their

of a lecture. They also affect how easily you can keep learning needs and showing them respect by living

students awake, quiet, orderly, and on task for all or up to their professional expectations of us. We can

part of a class period. Aristotle had good reason for start by reversing all the don’ts above into do’s. For evaluating rhetorical oratory on not only invention

instance, we should display a brief agenda, outline,

(content) and arrangement (organization) but also

or list of student outcomes at the beginning of every style (sentence structure and word use), delivery

class. Not only will we appear well prepared and

(vocal and physical performance), and memory

organized; we will also communicate nonverbally

(freedom from notes).

that we are in command of the classroom.

Excellence in public speaking encompasses

We should also explain why we have chosen

many different behaviors. Because Chapter Twelve

the readings, teaching methods, class activities, and addresses invention and arrangement and since you

assignments that we have without students having

are probably gifted with respect to style, let us

to ask. They don’t assume that we do what we do

proceed directly to delivery. It too comprises many

for their own good or because of our knowledge

different behaviors, most of them “small,” so to

of how people learn, so we need to convince them.

speak. But they add up to a tremendous difference in

We can tell them how many other inferior textbooks

the way the speaker and the message are received and

we reviewed, how much research stands behind

regarded. Following is a simple listing of major platthe effectiveness of our methods, and how well our

form skills (adapted from Toastmasters International

assignments will prepare them for their future careers.

speech manuals and related materials):

We might even summarize our teaching philosophy

(see Chapter Thirty-Two on writing one).

•

Effective use of voice: Volume adjusted to be audible Yet another way to show respect for students is

for the room and audience; words enunciated

to hold them to high expectations. Communicating

clearly; rich, resonant voice quality, projected

this point may initially require some tough love, such from

chest

and

diaphragm;

vocal

variety

as refusing to accept shoddy work (in this case, you

(changes in intonation to complement content

quickly return it to the student and require him to

and for emphasis); volume variety (either extreme

revise it up to standard before you will grade it). The for emphasis); varied and appropriate speaking

work may be docked for being late, but at least it will pace (never hurried and dramatically slower for

merit some points. Taking this strong action early in more important content); pregnant pauses for

the term will motivate students to stretch their abili-emphasis before and after major points; imagery

ties, and you’ll probably not have to take it again.

plays on words (for example, drawing out “slow”

and “long,” saying “icy” in an icy tone, saying

“soft” softly, saying “strong” with especially deep

Commanding Class Attention

resonance).

Sometimes students become restless, apathetic, and

•

Effective use of body: Solid, natural stance (unless potentially disruptive because their attention is

moving, legs comfortably apart, knees slightly

wandering or they’re bored. Your practicing good

bent, arms hanging at sides, shoulders relaxed, and

78

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

back straight); natural movement around lectern

Of course, all of these skills assembled together

or stage and out toward audience (for emphasis

seem impossibly numerous and precise to master.

and to complement content); abundant gestures

But you probably have inadvertently learned most of

to complement content (especially broad ones

them already and may need to polish only a few. If

before large audiences); word dramatization (for

your institution has a teaching center, it probably

example, momentarily acting out “timid,” “an-

will videotape you teaching a class and offer you the gry,” “anxious,” “huge”); varied facial expressions

chance to view your tape with a trained specialist.

(more dramatic in a large room), including smiles

This service can help you assess your platform skills where appropriate; only occasional glances, if any,

and identify ways to hone your public speaking

at notes; steady eye contact with the audience

effectiveness.

(at least three seconds per audience sector or

For now, the most important skill you should

quadrant are recommended).

check is your eye contact with your students. It is

•

Effective use of visual aids and props: In addi-a powerful form of crowd control. In large classes,

tion to rehearsing their use to avoid awkwardness,

it is easy to forget the far half of the class, and that see Chapters Twenty-Six and Twenty-Seven for

is exactly the half you usually need to control the

pointers.

most. Eye contact also personalizes your comments,

•

Emotions to project: Relaxed confidence, con-encourages students to return your attentiveness to

viction; enthusiasm, excitement, passion, a sense

them in kind, and enables you to read their faces to

of drama, curiosity; sincerity, concern, honesty,

gauge their interest and understanding.

openness, warmth, goodwill, caring, a sense of

Another key skill to monitor is your voice. Its

humor.

tonal variety and pace reflect your level of engage-

•

Minimization or elimination of distracting be-

ment in the material and your enjoyment of teaching.

haviors: Um, uh, you know, sort of, kind of,

A voice can sound monotone to an audience because

and-and, that-that; mispronunciations; false sen-the person speaks at the same pitch or at the same

tence starts; midsentence switches to the start

pace for long periods of time. If you find yourself

of a new sentence; volume fade-outs at end of

droning this way through a dry section of your lec-

sentences; pacing, swaying, or other repetitive

ture, try consciously to modulate your voice and vary movements; leaning on the lectern, against the

your speaking pace to keep student interest.

wall, against the chalkboard; lengthy checks of

Singers and actors have something to teach us.

notes; ritual apologies to audience (for example,

They do warm-up exercises for their voices and bod-

“I hoped to have prepared this lecture more

ies before they perform, and as performers in our

carefully”).

own right, we might consider doing the same to get

•

Not speaking for too long. As you will read in ready for class. These exercises are described in de-Chapter Twelve, students have a rather short

tail in Chapter Four because they also relieve first-day attention span for lecture. Unless you already

jitters, so a brief summary should suffice here.

project a charismatic persona, you’re inviting

For example, to enhance your vocal variety, res-

disruptions if you lecture beyond ten to twenty

onance, and projection, you can sing scales, alter-

minutes at a time. Whenever you spot a bored

nate high and low pitches, and read children’s books

expression or glazed eyes while you are lecturing,

aloud with exaggerated changes in pitch and pace.

pause and change the pace. Pose a question,

To loosen up, relax, and eliminate tension from your

open the floor for questions, or use any of

body, take three or four slow, deep breaths all the way the student-active breaks suggested in Chapter

into your diaphragm and pushing out all the old air

Twelve. If you don’t shift your students’ attention

before inhaling again. This breathing is also good for to a learning activity, they will shift their attention your vocal resonance and projection as well as your

to a nonlearning activity.

brain, since oxygen enhances cognitive functioning.

Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

79

Another excellent exercise is standing with your legs Keeping your composure, however, does not

about a foot apart and stretching every part of your

mean accepting and tolerating the abuse. It is critical body in every direction you can. It’s best to stretch that you do not ignore or otherwise tolerate the

slowly, stop when you feel any strain, and hold the

behavior. You must respond immediately. The worst

position for a few moments. Finally, extend your arms thing you can go is to ignore the behavior (Meyers et out in front of you and send energy along them and

al., 2006). The longer you let the incivility continue, out your fingertips. This mental practice enhances

the higher the level of response you will have to take your ability to send energy out to your audience.

later (Feldmann, 2001; Gonzalez & Lopez, 2001).

Taken together, these physical exercises will help you Here are some specific, appropriate measures you can

fill up your life space in front of your class. Your re-take in response to disruptive behaviors (Baldwin,

laxed state, coupled with your improved blood flow,

1997–1998; Ballantine & Risacher, 1993; Boice,

will make an open body posture feel natural and will

1996, 2000; Feldmann, 2001; Gonzalez & Lopez,

add energy, spring, and flow to your movements. You

2001; Nilson, 1981; Sorcinelli, 1994; Watkins, 1982).

will seem larger, more animated, and more dynamic.

Always be especially strict in enforcing the rules early Add greater vocal variety and richer voice quality,

in the term.

and your persona will begin to take on charisma. If

you observe a charismatic speaker closely, you will see Talking in Class

that charisma can be broken down into a number of

Occasional comments or questions from one student

small but powerful behaviors carefully orchestrated in to another are to be expected. However, chronic talk-combination.

ers bother other students and interfere with your train of thought. To stop them, you have several options.

The simplest is simply to pause, allowing their voices RESPONDING TO INCIVILITY

to fill the silence. You may also want to accompany

your pause with a long stare at the offenders. Star-

ing at them with a smile suggests you’re nonplussed

If you encounter a discipline problem in your

by the violation. Another option is to walk over to

classroom, stay calm and in control. Count to ten,

the offenders while you continue to teach. Still an-

breathe deeply, visualize a peaceful scene—anything

other, and an especially classy alternative, is to han-to keep you from losing your temper. No matter

dle it with a little humor, such as an invitation to share how much an offensive student tries to bait you, you

the conversation with the class. If appropriate, refer lose credibility if you lower yourself to his level. If to the classroom conduct contract or bill of rights and you keep your composure, you win the sympathy

responsibilities that the class authored and signed. If and support of the other students. They may even

you don’t have a contract, pleasantly say something

start using social pressure to discipline the offenders like, “I really think you should pay attention to this; themselves.

it will be on the test” or “You are disturbing your

In fact, whenever you sanction a student for

classmates.” If the problem persists, get stern with the mild, garden-variety uncivil behavior, smile through

offenders outside class. Public embarrassment is a last your firmness. A smile conveys not only warmth and

resort that should be avoided, since it can turn some approachability but also unflappable cool and relaxed students against you.

confidence. It says you don’t take the misconduct personally, that you are just doing your job to maintain a productive learning environment, and that student

Packing Up Early

misbehavior doesn’t get under your skin. With this

Routinely

reserve

some

important

points

or

kind of cool, students sense they can’t bait you, so

classroom

activities—quizzes,

writing

exercises,

they won’t.

clarification of the upcoming readings, study guide

80

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

distribution, a classroom assessment technique (as in also broaden the discussion and call attention away

Chapter Twenty-Eight)—until the end of class. Or

from the disruptive student by asking the rest of the have students turn in assignments at the end of class.

class for the answers.

Paper rustling and other disruptive noise making

If a student is rambling around or off the subject,

during class can be stopped the same way as talking

take control by seizing the chance to interrupt her and in class.

paraphrase whatever meaning you can salvage. Then

supply an answer and move along. Alternatively, you

Arriving Late or Leaving Early

can defer answering it for the sake of saving class time State your policies clearly on these offenses in your and advise her to raise it outside class.

syllabus and on the first day of class and never reteach material for the tardy. You can insist that students in-Asking Questions You’ve

form you in advance of any special circumstances that Already Answered

will require them to be late to class. You can even sub-A student asks you about the procedure for doing an

tract course points for coming late and leaving early assignment that you’ve already explained. Rather than as long as you set this policy at the start. You might putting down the student (“Where were you when

draw attention to offenders by pausing as they walk

I gave the assignment?”), just answer the question

in and out. Alternatively, you can set aside an area

civilly and quickly, or say that you already answered near the door for latecomers and early leavers. Finally, the question and will repeat the answer only outside

as you can do to discourage packing up early, you

class. Another option is to refer that student to the can routinely schedule important class activities at the written instructions you’ve provided and ask exactly

beginning and the end of class.

which part needs clarification.

Chronic offenders of these policies deserve their

day in court—that is, talk to them or email them pri-

vately about the problem. They may be late because

Asking Wheedling Questions

the previous hour’s class tends to run late or is a long Occasionally students try to wheedle answers out of

walk away. Or they may have to leave your class a little you to avoid having to work out the answer for them-early to get to their job on time.

selves. In class, you can invite other students to suggest leads and possibly get a discussion going. But one-on-Cheating

one, the best way to avoid giving in is to answer each Academic dishonesty is such a serious and widespread

of the student’s questions with another question that problem in higher education today that the entire

should help him think through the answer. A student

next chapter is devoted to preventing and responding

who is asking questions solely to pry answers out of

to it.

you will soon tire of your questions and go away.

Coming to Class Unprepared

Asking Argumentative Questions

This problem too is so widespread that all of Chapter A student who tries to entrap you in an argument

Twenty-Three addresses getting students to do the

for the sake of arguing either wants attention or has readings.

an authority problem. Just acknowledge his input

and quickly move on. To lower yourself to the bait

Dominating Discussion

jeopardizes your credibility with the class. If another If certain students habitually try to monopolize class incident occurs, tell the student you will discuss the time, tell them to speak with you after class to clarify issue outside class. After class, inform him in private their questions and discuss more of the issues. You can that you do not appreciate and will not tolerate such

Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

81

uncalled-for hostile behavior in your classroom. Also explicitly disassociate the grade from her worth as a mention that it disturbs other students and wastes

person. Even if you can’t turn the student’s opinion

their class time.

around, you can reduce both your own and her anx-

Another strategy is to handle questions through

iety levels by showing yourself to be an ally (at least a different medium. You can collect written ques-partially). Finally, try to give her a graceful way to re-tions in a box and briefly address some of them at

treat from the situation. Just don’t be intimidated into the next class meeting. You can also encourage stu-changing the grade.

dents to email their questions to you or put them on

It is very rare that an instructor feels physically

the course website. While less personal, these options threatened by a hostile student, and it invariably hap-offer a less confrontational format.

pens when others are not around. While verbal hos-

tility calls for a private approach, the physical version requires quite the opposite: try to move yourself and Asking Loaded Questions

the student into as public a place as possible, even

The rare nefarious student may design a question just if just the hallway. A colleague or student may call

to embarrass you and put you on the defensive. Like

campus security on your behalf.

the argumentative student, this type is also probably seeking attention and respect from his peers and de-Using a Computer in Class

serves the same response. You may also be able to turn for Nonclass Purposes

the loaded question back on the student asking it:

Student: You’re not really saying . . . ?

Some students claim they are facile at multitasking,

Instructor: What I’m saying is . . . Now, what is your so they can read and respond to their email, text or

perspective on this topic?

“messenger” with a friend, participate in a chatroom, make purchases, surf the Web, and pay attention in class at the same time. But if this were true, people Demanding a Grade Change

could simultaneously talk on their cell phones and

To discourage this situation from happening often,

drive safely (a low-concentration cognitive task), and set a policy in your syllabus that if a student wants we know that no one can do this.

to protest a grade, either you will regrade the

Unfortunately, it is impossible to monitor

entire test or assignment, or better yet, you will not students’ screens unless you teach from the back

accept a grade protest unless the student submits

of the room, and you may or may not be able

a written justification for the change, citing exact

to roam around to see what students are doing.

book pages and class period dates, within forty-eight But you can take measures to reduce the behavior

hours. Do not accept email messages; they are too

drastically. When you assign an in-class computer

informal.

task, keep your students extra busy by giving them

If a student still comes to you demanding a grade

minimal time to complete it. Also have them work in

change, try to neutralize her emotion and delay deal-

small groups, each group at one laptop or terminal.

ing with the issue until she calms down. Schedule

Chances are that three or four students won’t be

an appointment with her in your office at least a

able to agree on a renegade site. Between computer

day or two later. Then open with a positive, empa-

assignments in class, have students turn off their

thetic statement: “I understand your frustration. Let’s computers or close their laptops.

take a look at your paper [or test] and talk about the Of course, discouraging this behavior is the best

grading.” Have the student read her answer aloud to

approach. In your syllabus, have a policy that stu-

help her hear her errors. Maintain eye contact and

dents engaging in renegade computer activities will

try to agree with her whenever possible. If necessary, be marked absent for that day.

82

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Cutting Classes

Showing Disrespect in General

These are the top three reasons students give for cut-If your prevention measures fail, talk to offenders

ting class: (1) attendance is not taken or does not affect privately and explain that their behavior is affecting the grade, (2) the instructor does not see or care if a their fellow students’ ability to learn. Avoid showing student is missing, or (3) the class content is available or inciting anger by keeping your voice low. Be

elsewhere. We also know that attendance drops off

aware that sometimes students show disrespect to get

in required, large, and more lecture-oriented classes the attention they believe they can’t get through any (Friedman, Rodriguez, & McComb, 2001).

other means. They want to vent their anger toward

From these findings, the best ways to increase

authority or express some other deep-seated emo-

attendance, especially when used in combination,

tional problem. Leave such cases to the professionals, suggest themselves: basing part of the course grade

and refer them to your institution’s psychological or on attendance; taking attendance regularly (even if

counseling center.

you don’t calculate it in the grade); basing part of

If your warnings fail or you face grievous

the course grade on participation in discussion (see

and repeated displays of disrespect and abuse, don’t

Chapter Thirteen); making the class more interactive

hesitate to order the offenders out of the classroom, and participatory; giving frequent, graded quizzes;

at least for that day. Should they refuse to leave, call regularly taking up homework to be graded; covering

campus security. After the incident, review it with

in class a great deal of material that isn’t in the

the students in class so they can serve as witnesses, tell readings; not allowing commercial production of

your department chair, and make a written record

your lecture notes; not putting your lecture notes

of the verbal exchange. While calling security is a

on the Web (skeletal outlines are okay); requiring

last-resort response, it’s a good idea to memorize the students to catch up with any classes they have missed number or have it on speed dial. Taking this tack

on their own; conducting cooperative learning group

should end your incivility problems in the course for activities in class and grading students in part on peer the rest of the term (Carroll, 2003a).

performance evaluations (see Chapter Sixteen); and

conducting other frequent, graded in-class activities.

SEEKING ASSISTANCE

Asking for Extensions and Missing

Assignment Deadlines

You are not alone in having to deal with student

In your syllabus, specify penalties for late work (for incivilities. Ask your more respected colleagues how

example, docking a portion of the grade), with or

they handle them. Requesting their advice will not

without an “approved” extension. Some instructors

lead them to believe you are an ineffective teacher.

feel comfortable strictly enforcing this policy, while Another source of strategies is the student affairs

others prefer to be flexible. Students occasionally

staff. These officers usually understand students and have good reasons for not meeting deadlines, but they their worlds and how to communicate with them

also occasionally lie. You must assess each extension better than most faculty, and the dean of student

request and excuse on a case-by-case, student-by-

affairs should know about even mildly threatening

student basis, perhaps allowing a single, documented

incivilities. In addition, refer students with ego,

incident but drawing the line at the second.

authority, or anger management problems to your in-

A student with a habitual problem deserves a

stitution’s psychological or counseling center. Finally, private talk and the full penalties. You might ask other speak outside class with your best-behaved students,

instructors in your department for the names of any

enlisting them to help you keep an orderly learning

chronic cases that they have encountered.

environment.

C H A P T E R 8

Preserving Academic Integrity

Theterm cheating referstoawidevarietyof cheated in eight or more classes while in college behaviors generally considered unethical (Bar-

(Collison, 1990a). The figures were comparable at

nett & Dalton, 1981), at least by faculty. In its thirty-one highly selective American universities,

basic form, it is misrepresenting one’s knowledge and where 67 percent of the students admitted to cheating effort. Plagiarism, a type of cheating, is claiming the (Kibler, 1992). Plagiarizers numbered fewer: only

ideas or words of others to be one’s own, if just pas-about 10 percent (Collison, 1990b).

sively by not referencing their true source—in short, A more recent survey shows that little has

theft of intellectual property. A student who plagia-

changed. Seventy-five percent of American college

rizes a report, fails to cite sources, copies an answer on students reported having cheated (Center for Aca-a test, or pays someone to write a term paper has dis-demic Integrity survey cited in Hutton, 2006), the

honestly obtained information and has lied in passing major differences being the use of cell phones for

off the product as her own original work.

test answers and the Internet for purchased papers

and stolen sources (Altschuler, 2001). But plagiarism increased a great deal, no doubt due to the Internet.

HOW PREVALENT IS CHEATING?

One-quarter of the students said that they at least

sometimes copied and pasted text from the Web

Since the late 1980s, surveys have documented that

without attribution, and 28 percent admitted lifting

cheating is a way of life for American college students.

text from printed material (Kellogg, 2002). As

Over two decades ago, 45 percent of undergraduates

shocking as these figures may seem, other sources

nationwide reported having cheated at some time

have reported even higher ones (Kleiner & Lord,

in college, and an additional 33 percent copped to

1999). In one survey 90 percent of the students

being habitual or “hard-core” cheaters—that is, they

admitted that they use the Internet to cheat (Berry,

83

84

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Thornton, & Baker, 2006). Even worse, not even

country. Everyone wants to make a lot of money, and

30 percent of those who cheat regret doing it, and

cheating is a way to beat out other people” (Collison, getting caught deters only 7 percent of them from

1990b, p. A31).

doing it again, according to a survey conducted by

When asked why they cheat, 32 percent of stu-

CollegeHumor (cited by Poythress, 2007).

dents cite laziness, 29 percent better grades, and 12

We know that cheating in high school bears a

percent pressure to succeed (Center for Academic In-

strong relationship to cheating in college (Harding,

tegrity survey cited in Hutton, 2006). In an earlier

Mayhew, Finelli, & Carpenter, 2007), so let’s look survey, some students mentioned grade competition

at a 2006 national survey of high school students to

and peer pressure from fellow fraternity and sorority project to more contemporary college students. Sixty

members (Collison, 1990b). Disinterest in the mate-

percent admitted to cheating on at least one test, onerial explains why students may cheat in certain courses third to plagiarizing at least one assignment from the but not others (Kleiner & Lord, 1999).

Internet and 62 percent to lying to a teacher about a Some student demographics and activities are

significant matter—all within the previous year. This related to the prevalence of cheating. While religious behavior reflects their perceptions of the real world.

affiliation and major are not (Nowell & Laufer,

Fifty-nine percent believe that “successful people do 1997), the findings are mixed on the relationship to

what they have to do to win, even if others consider

gender and grade point average (Barnett & Dalton, it cheating,” and nearly one-quarter agree that “peo-1981; Hutton, 2006; Kerkvliet, 1994; Nowell &

ple who are willing to lie, cheat, or break the rules Laufer, 1997). However, cheating does seem to be

are more likely to succeed than people who do not.”

associated with younger age (Hutton, 2006; McCabe

Yet 92 percent claim to be “satisfied with my own

& Trevino, 1997; Nowell & Laufer, 1997), fraternity ethics and character,” and 84 percent say that most

or sorority membership, extensive extracurricular

of the people who know them would count them

involvement, heavy drinking and partying behavior

among the most ethical people they know (Josephson

(Hutton, 2006; Kerkvliet, 1994; McCabe & Trevino, Institute, 2008). Cheating and lying are so entrenched 1997; Nowell & Laufer, 1997), and being employed

in this generation that most of its members consider

(Nowell & Laufer, 1997).

them ethical.

Still, the most important determinants of

cheating are student perceptions. If they anticipate

peer disapproval for the behavior, they are less likely WHO CHEATS, AND WHY?

to do it. If, however, they see cheating as widespread and acceptable among their peers, the likelihood

Student cheating mirrors the ethics and behavior

rises (Anderman, Freeman, & Mueller, 2007; Barnett of the broader society. An overall decline of public

& Dalton, 1981; Bunn, Caudill, & Gropper, 1992; morality started in the self-centered 1970s and 1980s Hutton, 2006; McCabe & Trevino, 1997; Mixon,

and has just gotten worse. Media depictions of the

1996). Another critical perception is the opportunity good life whet students’ appetites for something

to cheat. The lower the chances of getting caught

that they are not sure they will be able to afford.

(low supervision) and the lower the sanctions for

Moreover, the now commonplace scandalous antics

getting caught (low threat)—as students size up

of business and political leaders make amoral and

their odds—the more prevalent cheating is. So not

immoral behavior seem normal, and the small price

surprisingly, the behavior is related to class size and these leaders pay makes it look profitable (Collison, the use of multiple-choice tests (Barnett & Dalton, 1990a; Josephson Institute, 2008). In fact, 90 percent 1981; Kerkvliet & Sigmund, 1999; Mixon, 1996;

of college students don’t think that cheaters ever pay Nowell & Laufer, 1997). Anonymity no doubt plays

the price (Kleiner & Lord, 1999). As one student

a role with respect to both class and institutional

put it, “Cheating is a very common practice in our

size. Cheating is more common in classes taught by

Preserving Academic Integrity

85

non-tenure-track and graduate student instructors

even incorrect ones, across exams. Be concerned, too, (Kerkvliet & Sigmund, 1999; Nowell & Laufer,

if a student improves his exam performance mete-

1997), a situation that frequently occurs in larger,

orically without having seen you or your teaching

research-oriented public universities.

assistant (TA) for extra help.

Sadly enough, faculty play a role in setting stu-

Plagiarism is possible when a student hands in

dent perceptions as well. According to surveys, half of a paper (1) without quotations or references, (2) with the instructors admit to ignoring at least some of the references that don’t fit with the text, (3) with odd, es-cheating they are aware of (McCabe, 2005; Nadel-

oteric, or inaccessible references, (4) on a topic other son, 2007). After all, pursuing a cheating case takes than the one assigned, (5) with a format different

time and yields no rewards for faculty. In general, col-from your requirements, (6) with a cover page type-

leges and universities turn a blind eye to much of the face different from the text’s, (7) late, (8) on a recently cheating that goes on and understate the prevalence

changed topic, (9) with a shifting writing style, (10) of the behavior (Bok, 2006; Haney & Clarke, 2007).

with familiar-sounding sections, (11) heavy on facts

Even so, student perceptions are malleable,

not tied together, (12) very similar to another student’s and institutions and instructors can influence them.

paper, (13) that is photocopied, or (14) that is just too Colleges and universities with honor codes weave

perfect and mature for the student in question.

academic integrity into the student culture (see the

Realize that you may not be able to trace all

section on honor codes below), and with or without

purchased papers to their source, and there are dozens an honor code, small private institutions nurture

of paper mills on the Web. However, you can uncover

bonds of trust and caring between students and

most cases of plagiarism by using one of several online faculty. In these contexts, cheating is less acceptable text-matching services (for a fee) or by typing, in quo-and, as a result, less prevalent (Hutton, 2006). How

tation marks, a distinctive suspect phrase or sentence much you as an instructor emphasize academic

into one or more Web search engines (for free).

honesty and how dedicated you seem to teaching

and your students have a sizable impact as well. If

students view you as lax or indifferent about integrity, PREVENTING CHEATING

if they consider your tests confusing and unfair, or if they can’t see the relevance of your material, some

Except for your instructor status, the crucial de-

will feel entitled to cheat (Hutton, 2006; Kerkvliet

terminants of cheating are within your control. So

& Sigmund, 1999; Whitley, 1998). In other words, if you can stop or at least drastically reduce academic

you don’t seem to care, they won’t either.

dishonesty in your classes with proven prevention

measures. Most of these either make cheating more

difficult or heighten students’ perceived chances of

DETECTING CHEATING

getting caught and facing dire consequences, and the

rest reduce students’ motivation to cheat (Barnett

Catching incidences of cheating is not rocket science.

& Dalton, 1981; Brauchle, 2000; Hutton, 2006;

During tests, an observant eye can often see wander-

Johnson & Ury, 1998, 1999; Kerkvliet & Sigmund, ing glances and students passing notes, cheat sheets, 1999; Kleiner & Lord, 1999; McCabe & Trevino, and even bluebooks to one another. Sometimes you

1996, 1997; Office of Educational Development,

can spot a ringer by an unfamiliar face. Other tip-

1985; Whitley, 1998; Wilhoit, 1994):

offs are a heavily erased exam, suspicious behavior (for example, leaving the room during the exam, rustling

1. Motivate your students’ interest in your subject,

through one’s things, hiding a cell phone in one’s lap, and help them understand its relevance to their

repeatedly looking at one’s hands and arms), and, of

careers and the broader world so they will want

course, a considerable number of identical answers,

to learn it (see Chapter Five).

86

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

2. Define cheating and plagiarism to your students,

12. Supply scratch paper if needed.

and give examples and hypothetical cases. Your

13. Clear all calculators before passing out a test.

students may not understand these terms. Also

14. If blue books are used, have students turn theirs teach them how to cite sources correctly.

in just before the test, then redistribute them

3. State verbally and in writing your own and your

randomly.

institution’s policies on academic dishonesty and

15. Proctor tests judiciously, enlisting the aid of your their applications to each assignment and test you

TAs and colleagues. Don’t allow yourself or

give. State that you strictly enforce these poli-

your assistants to work on any other project

cies and will check for plagiarism electronically.

while proctoring. Charge only one proctor

Include statements in your syllabus (see Chapter

(perhaps yourself) with answering any questions

Three).

during the test.

4. If you’re a graduate student or adjunct instructor, 16. Check for cheat notes in nearby restrooms, on

be especially assertive. Students may think they

the underside of baseball cap bills, on students’

can get away with more in your class since you’re

skin (perhaps visible only through a hole in their

supposedly less savvy and more sympathetic to

jeans), on the labels of beverage bottles, and in

students than regular faculty are.

other highly imaginative places.

5. Make your exams as original as possible to reduce

17. Collect tests from students individually to avoid student reliance on old tests for study. Solicit po-a chaotic rush at the end of class.

tential new test questions from TAs and students.

18. When grading tests manually, clearly mark in-

6. Ensure equal access to study aids by placing a

correct answers with an X or a slash in ink. Also

file of old tests and assignments on your course

place a mark at the end of each answer to make

website for all students to use. Fraternities and

any later additions obvious.

sororities often keep test files for their members.

19. Return exams, papers, and assignments to stu-

7. Make up different forms of tests, especially

dents in person or electronically.

multiple-choice tests, by varying the order of the

20. Collect your test questions after you review the

questions. The test tools in course management

tests. If the test question forms are separate from

systems such as Blackboard will usually do this

the answer sheets, have students put their names

for you.

on the forms to ensure you can account for all

8. Firmly remind your class before each test that

of them.

academic integrity is important to you, your in-

21. Assign paper topics that are unique and specific

stitution, and the larger society, and that you will

and require original critical thinking or critical

enforce it using all the institutional means you

self-examination.

have available.

22. Give explicit collaboration rules for all out-of-

9. Although even good students don’t want to

class assignments.

“squeal,” appeal to their social ethics and their

23. Change your writing assignments as often as pos-

desire to protect their own intellectual property

sible to discourage paper recycling.

to report cheating.

24. Take class time to discuss difficulties in the as-10. During tests, if the room permits, seat students

signments and how to overcome them.

with space between them and place their

25. Make specific format requirements, and grade in

personal belongings, especially cell phones, far

part on adherence to them.

away from them (for example, at the front of the

26. Require a certain combination of sources—so

room).

many from the Web, so many from print ma-

11. In large lecture halls, have assigned test seats, and terial in the campus library, so many from videos

keep a chart of students’ names.

in the campus collection, and so on.

Preserving Academic Integrity

87

27. Teach students how and when to cite sources.

We don’t know very much about the incidence

28. Warn students that you will be checking the

of cheating in online classes, but what we do know is originality of their papers with plagiarism-discouraging. Milliron and Sandoe (2008) uncovered

detection software. This deterrent is much

evidence of cheating on low-stakes online quizzes

more effective that just cautioning them against

involving 20 percent of the three hundred students

plagiarism (Braumoeller & Gaines, 2001).

in their hybrid introductory information systems

29. Require a personal interview as a source, prefer-

course. Most frequently, students were taking the

ably taped or conducted over e-mail, with the

quizzes in groups or giving one another answers.

documentation to be turned in.

After their hybrid course ended, Haney and Clarke

30. Meet with students early and often to moni-

(2007) surveyed their students about their quiz-

tor their progress on a major assignment and to

taking practices, 54 percent of whom admitted to

gauge the development of their ideas.

exchanging answers and 79 percent of whom were

31. Guide and monitor students through the process

aware of online cheating. Perhaps the intimacy of

of researching and writing. Have them complete

small, online courses counteracts the anonymity,

assignments in stages and turn in progress reports.

and older students who don’t know each other

32. Require students to submit first drafts. This en-

outside the course are probably less likely to cheat.

sures you see a work in progress and allows you

But it’s almost impossible to know who is taking

to provide early feedback.

an online exam unless the students have Webcams

33. Require students to turn in photocopies of the

on their computers or a remote proctor is available

print and Web material they use, at least the first

(Carnevale, 1999).

page.

34. Require students to turn in the original of their paper and a copy for your files. You can refer to

HONOR CODES

the file copy if you suspect piracy later.

35. Strive to be fair, clear, and authentic in all

Campuses with a well-established and well-enforced

the ways you assess. Explain to students your

honor code have a somewhat lower incidence of

rationales behind your assessment instruments

cheating, by as much as 25 percent, than those that

and grading standards.

do not (Collison, 1990a; Gordon, 1990; McCabe

& Trevino, 1996; McCabe, Trevino, & Butterfield, If you suspect any form of academic dishonesty,

1999). Students are responsible for policing one

take swift, decisive action. Know your institution’s

another, and cheating violations usually carry a heavy policies and the person to whom to report the vi-penalty, such as expulsion. However, these codes

olation. (Ask your dean or chair, or refer to your

only reflect the real reason for the difference, which institution’s faculty handbook, student handbook, or

lies in the campus culture’s high regard for academic course catalogue.) Our hope is that the judicial pro-integrity and honor (McCabe & Trevino, 1996;

cess won’t be discouragingly time-consuming, labori-

McCabe et al., 1999). Typically students pledge their ous, and biased in the student’s favor. Some instructors adherence to the honor code in writing on every

don’t take the official route instead and handle cases graded test and assignment, which serves to remind

quietly on their own—for example, giving an F to pa-

them of the code and reinforce their commitment to

pers and tests where plagiarism or cheating is evident it. Such campuses are predominantly private.

(Schneider, 1999). Ask senior colleagues how much

In the hopes of changing the culture, several

de facto discretion you have and should take. Usually large, public institutions are testing the efficacy of an instructor’s ad hoc penalties are more lenient than modified honor codes. While instructors still take

institutional ones and don’t go on a student’s record.

precautions such as proctoring tests and checking for

88

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

plagiarism, students take an honor pledge and to an

Wueste (2008) is even more optimistic. He believes

extent police themselves (Wasley, 2008). For instance, that we can persuade as many as 60 percent of our

a student-dominated judicial board is often established students by pointing out the damaging consequences,

to try alleged violators and decide their fate. Thus far, the injustice, and the character implications of cheat-various forms of cheating have dropped to rates about ing. He offers these specific arguments to share with midway between those of honor-code campuses

students:

and those of no-code campuses on the campuses

that have adopted modified codes (McCabe &

•

Cheating misleads employers into thinking you

Pavela, 2000).

have mastered knowledge and skills that you

Another quite new and little-used strategy to

haven’t. What harm will you do to the world

change the campus culture or begin a transition to

lacking that knowledge and those skills?

an institutional honor code is to encourage faculty

•

Relatedly, cheating cheapens your degree. If you

to introduce classroom honor codes. Students are re-

graduate poorly prepared, you will lower your in-

quired to sign the code at the beginning of the course stitution’s regard among employers and your fel-and again on each piece of graded work. Preliminary

low citizens.

results are promising but are based on small classes

•

Cheating undermines the faculty’s ability to give

(Pavela, 2008).

you honest feedback and evaluation of your work.

The success of traditional, modified, and class-

•

Cheating gives you an unfair advantage over your

room honor codes is modest yet shows that the stu-

fellow students who do not cheat.

dent culture has an impact independent of the larger

•

Cheating violates the social contract that you vol-

societal culture. But it only makes sense that cheat-

untarily enter into with your institution when you

ing will remain prevalent as long as the larger culture arrived here.

tolerates unethical behavior.

•

Cheating damages your character. If you cheat

now in college, you will cheat later in other

contexts—in the workplace, on your taxes, in

CHANGING STUDENT VALUES

your marriage, and so on.

•

Cheating obstructs any hope of your achieving

What about the future of this larger culture? As

excellence in whatever matters to you. You will

studies cited early in this chapter found, younger

never accomplish what you are capable of; you

students feel little remorse about cheating, and they won’t even know what you’re capable of.

consider themselves ethical in spite of it. We are

facing the prospect that this generation’s culture of We can add to Wueste’s list Staats et al.’s hopeful

cheating will carry over into the broader society

findings (2009): compared to cheaters, academically

and economy. In fact, those who cheat in college

honest students hold a higher opinion of others and

intend to violate norms and rules in the future to

score higher on measures of courage, empathy, and

get ahead (Lovett-Hooper, Komarraju, Weston, &

honesty in general.

Dollinger, 2007). It seems many, if not most, students Will reasoning this way with students change

don’t perceive cheating as wrong. Can we possibly

their values? If we have taught long enough, we

convince them that it is?

know firsthand that we indeed have the power to

No doubt, we can convince some. According to

create learning experiences that induce students to

a survey by Staats, Hupp, Wallace, and Gresley (2009), change their values. Our prevention and policing

only 24 percent of the students definitely planned to efforts haven’t solved the cheating problem, and

cheat in the future, and almost 30 percent were un-

Wueste’s and Staats et al.’s approach has barely been certain. Perhaps this undecided group can be swayed.

tried. Its time has come.

C H A P T E R 9

Making the Most of Office Hours

Whenyouthinkofyourroleasaninstruc- GETTINGSTUDENTSTOSEEYOU

tor, you may picture yourself lecturing,

facilitating discussion, managing student

Students see TAs during their office hours with little groups, answering questions, and the like in a class-hesitation. But most of them, freshmen in particu-

room or laboratory—in any case, interacting with and

lar, are intimidated by the prospect of visiting even helping a number of students to learn. During office

the most kind-hearted, hospitable faculty member. If

hours, however, you interact with and help individual you’re a TA who teaches your own course, you may

students. This is a golden teaching opportunity

be mistaken for faculty and face the same problem.

because one-on-one tutoring yields more learning

Students have their reasons for avoiding office

by far than does class instruction (Bloom, 1984). Yet hours. Those most likely to seek individual help tend we rarely discuss or conduct research on holding

to be getting middle-range grades in a course, in the effective office hours. Face-to-face and in private,

B− to C+ range; those least likely are either doing

students share their confusions, misunderstandings,

quite well or doing very poorly and in most need of

and questions more candidly and completely than

they do in class, and you are in the best position

individual tutoring. The latter students have appar-

to give them the individual attention and help they

ently decided that they are incapable of succeeding

need. The problem is getting them in your office.

and are beyond help (Karabenick & Knapp, 1988).

Find out the number of office hours per week

Other types of thinking may keep students away from

that your institution or department requires or expects your door. For instance, some personalities and cul-of instructors. You may want to add another hour

tures view help seeking as demeaning—threatening

when you have a relatively large class or a writing-

to either their self-esteem (Nadler, 1983) or perceived intensive course or if you are a professor without a

autonomy (Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgley, 2001). Spend-teaching assistant (TA).

ing your office hours alone with your research and

89

90

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

writing may seem attractive at first, but it won’t after major tests and project due dates), almost 20 students you see those disappointing first papers, lab reports, (out of 150 enrolled one semester and 185 enrolled

or quizzes. So you have to make efforts to induce the another semester) showed up. The researchers then

students to see you. These efforts include finding the administered surveys to the students asking where

right place, establishing the right setting, scheduling they sought help with the class. Almost 60 percent

the right times, and giving a lot of encouragement.

used the course center, versus 36 percent office hours, and almost 80 percent said the course center increased The Right Place

the likelihood of their getting help. Furthermore,

54 percent preferred the help offered by the course

Office hours need not always be in your office.

center over office hours, due in part to the group-

Richardson (2006) moved his office hours to a bench

work option and the informal, collegial atmosphere.

under a shade tree (he lives in a warm, sunny climate) Students could study or work on their homework

and found the change energized his scholarship and

and get an answer to a question as soon as it arose.

his connection to students and the campus. Some

Those struggling with the material could see that they years back, Gogel (1985) conducted an informal

were in good company and make visible progress.

experiment that broadened the location possibilities.

No doubt the course center is a successful draw

During a three-year observation period, he scheduled

for students needing help, and it is worth your con-

his office hours in a remote office building for the

sideration as a supplement to your office hours. You

first and third years and in a common study area

may even be able to share center staffing duties with in the medical library the second year. In the first

other instructors or TAs teaching different sections of and third years, only one student showed up each

year, predictably just prior to an exam. In the second the same or a similar course.

year, a full 20 percent of his students paid him visits at various times during the semester to discuss the

The Right Times

material and ask questions.

Be careful and considerate in scheduling your office

Could it be that students are more intimidated

hours. If you are available only briefly during prime by your office than by you? Or perhaps the issue is the class time—that is, when students are attending their convenience of your office location. Does this mean

other classes—then you immediately reduce your stu-

you should move your office hours out of your office?

dents’ ability to see you. To maximize your availability If your office is out of the way for your students, the to students, straddle your office hours over two class idea is worth considering, especially before exams and periods, allowing students with a class over one pe-paper deadlines.

riod the chance to see you during the other time

You might even split your office hours between

slot. If you teach a discussion, recitation, or laboratory two locations—some in your office and some in the

section, make sure that your office hours do not overstudent union or an appropriate library.

lap with the lecture portion of the course. If you run out of hours in the day, consider scheduling an early The Right Setting

evening office hour, perhaps in the student union, an Chung and Hsu (2006) experimented with supple-appropriate library, or another student-friendly locamenting their office hours with a weekly one- or

tion. Also, consider the day. Try to schedule at least two-hour “course center” in a regular classroom.

an hour on Mondays or Tuesdays, when students are

With a course instructor or TA present, students

most likely to have questions from the readings and

could come to ask questions or just study on their

other homework they did over the weekend. During

own or in small groups for as long as they wanted.

the term, remind your classes periodically that you

Some weeks no one came, and at other times (before

also meet by appointment.

Making the Most of Office Hours

91

The Right Encouragement

(This strategy works better during the term than

after it ends.)

Start out by publicizing your office hours, first in your

•

If you divide your class into small groups or assign

syllabus, then on the board or a slide during the first day of class, and intermittently during the term be-group projects, you might have each group sched-

fore high-traffic weeks, such as before tests and major ule at least one appointment with you to give a

assignment deadlines. Put a supportive statement in

progress report.

your syllabus graciously offering your willing counsel When students arrive, especially the first time,

and urging students to take advantage of your office

try to make them feel welcome and at ease. After all, hours. Perrine, Lisle, and Tucker (1995) found this

they’re on your turf, and it takes courage for them to effort effective in attracting younger students (under be there. You might spend the first minute or two

age twenty-five) to seek help. You might have your

students write your office hours and locations on the finding out how they are, how the course is going

front of their course notebooks. In addition, post your for them, and how they are experiencing college in

hours prominently outside your office door.

general. In this day and age, however, too warm an

It also helps to establish a friendly classroom

approach can be misunderstood. If you are meeting

atmosphere on the first day of class by having stu-

in your office, close the door for privacy but leave it dents fill out index cards on themselves, conducting

slightly ajar. Also maintain a respectable seating dis-icebreaker activities, and sharing highlights of your tance from the student.

own background (see Chapter Four). On that day

Should an emergency or illness prevent you

and throughout the rest of the term, warmly invite

from making your office hours, leave a note or ask

students to stop by your office to talk about the

your department staff to leave a note, apologizing for course as well as the material.

your unavoidable absence.

But even the warmest series of invitations may

not provide enough encouragement. You may have

to require the pleasure of their company. Here are

MAKING THE TIME PRODUCTIVE

several acceptable ways:

Most students who come to your office hours do so

•

Make it a regular course requirement for each stu-

with a definite purpose in mind, often one that you

dent to schedule a time to meet with you as early

have defined in class. So it is worth a little class time, in the term as possible. The first meeting will pave

if not a section in your syllabus, to advise students on the way for future voluntary visits.

how to prepare for meetings with you. You cannot

•

Have students schedule individual meetings while

be expected to read their minds. For instance, you

they are writing the first paper. You can use this

might instruct them to come with appropriate mate-

opportunity to review their first draft and clarify

rials: their journals or lecture notes, their lab books, your expectations for the paper.

their homework problems, drafts of their papers, or

•

Have students turn in papers, problem sets, lab

the readings with troublesome passages marked. You

reports, extra-credit work, and other assignments

might even tell them to write out their questions or

not in class but in your office during certain hours

points of confusion as clearly as they can. If the issue of a nonclass day.

is a homework problem, insist that they work it out

•

Have students schedule meetings with you to

as far as they can, even if they know their approach

get their grades on their papers or written

is faulty. If the issue is a grade, tell them to bring assignments. You can return their marked papers

in a written justification—with citations to the read-or assignments in class for them to review before

ings, lectures, discussions, labs, or other materials—for meeting with you, but hold the grades hostage.

changing their grade. Reserve the right to terminate

92

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

and reschedule a meeting if a student is not ade-

check them over. Rather than giving just perfunctory

quately prepared. Why waste your time and your stu-

affirmations, you can help them acquire their own

dent’s time? In addition, counsel students that they are sense of security by having them explain and justify

not to use your office hours to get a condensed ver-

to you their revisions or problem solutions. If they

sion of the classes they have missed or to get you to can “teach” their rationales, they have earned the

write their papers or do their homework problems for

right to feel confident.

them. (Chapter Eight offers suggestions on handling

Identifying student errors calls for extra gentle-

problematic student demands and questions.)

ness. Students who come to you for extra help

When students do come properly prepared, try

are probably feeling somewhat insecure and self-

to give them your undivided attention. If you can-

conscious. So praise their smallest breakthroughs

not prevent intrusive phone calls, keep them brief. If generously, and let them know you appreciate their

other students are waiting outside your door, work

coming to see you. You want them to feel welcome

efficiently without letting their presence distract you.

to come back.

If a student fails to show up on time for an

appointment, call to remind her and reschedule if

STUDENT-ACTIVE TUTORING

necessary. If she simply forgot, counsel her that your time is too valuable a commodity to be forgotten.

To maximize the value of your consultation, make it

as student-active as possible. Refer to Chapter Four-

teen on questioning techniques for recommendations

STUDENTS IN ACADEMIC OR

on how to help students work through their con-

EMOTIONAL TROUBLE

fusions as much on their own as possible. Although

some students resent this strategy, you can often be

Dealing with students in serious trouble is beyond

most helpful by responding to their questions with

the scope of an instructor’s responsibility. Students other questions that will lead them to answers. After who seem overwhelmed by the material or lack basic

all, they won’t really learn what you tell them—only

writing, reasoning, and mathematical skills should

what they themselves realize (Bonwell & Eison,

be referred to the learning skills or academic assis-

1991). Usually the single most informative (to you)

tance center on your campus. As described in the

and helpful (to them) question that you can pose

Appendix, a unit of this type usually offers individual to students you are tutoring is why they chose the

tutoring and workshops on a range of academic

answer or problem-solving approach that they did

skills, such as textbook reading, writing, studying,

(especially if it’s an incorrect one), why they came

problem solving, note taking, critical thinking, test to the conclusion they did (have them reason it

preparation, and general learning.

through), or why they stopped solving the problem,

Emotionally distressed students usually need

researching, reasoning, or writing, for example,

professional help. For your own peace of mind, it

where they did. This question should lead both of

is important to remember that you are neither the

you to the key misconception, misunderstanding,

cause of nor the solution to their problems, even

missing step, or error in reasoning. Sometimes

if they try to attribute them to a grade in your

students want to see you to give them a sense of

course. You can be most helpful by knowing how to

security. For instance, they have revised their paper identify such students, approaching them about their

according to your or their peer group’s specifications, apparent problem in a nonjudgmental and caring

but they lack confidence in their writing. Or they

way, referring them to your institution’s psychological have done their homework problems but want you to

or counseling center (walk them there, if need be),

Making the Most of Office Hours

93

and informing the center about the encounter. Here

•

Dramatic mood swings or erratic behavioral

are some classic warning signs (Western Kentucky

changes

University Counseling and Testing Center, 2008):

•

Continual lack of energy, sleepiness, listlessness, or depression

•

Angry challenges to your authority

•

Expressions (oral or written) of hopelessness,

•

Physical aggression, either real or threatened

worthlessness, loneliness, emotional pain, or the

•

Uncharacteristically animated or agitated behavior

desire to end it all

•

Complaints of rejection or persecution

•

Expression of concern by a fellow student

•

Distorted perceptions of reality

•

Unjustified demands on your time

The most immediate proper responses to aggres-

•

A sudden drop in academic performance

sive behaviors are simple and easy to remember: when

•

A sudden extended absence from class

dealing with verbal aggression, make arrangements to

•

Repeated missed assignments

meet with the student later in a private place to al-

•

Social withdrawal or isolation

low the emotions to defuse (verbal, private). If you

•

Deteriorations in physical appearance or personal

sense the situation may elevate to physical abuse, move hygiene

yourself and the student into a public area (physical,

•

Visible changes in weight

public). In any case, do not ignore the behaviors listed

•

Self-injurious behavior (for example, cutting

above if you see them.

oneself)

It is impossible to anticipate all the different

•

Apparent drug or alcohol abuse

kinds of help that your students may need. The

•

Impaired speech or disjointed thoughts

Appendix will help you refer them to the right office.

C H A P T E R 10

Course Coordination Between Faculty

and Teaching Assistants

The ideal relationship between faculty and cooperation, and communication. This chapter teaching assistants (TAs) is a mutually ben-suggests specific ways for both parties to foster these eficial exchange. The professor receives an

qualities in their working relationship.

invaluable staff member in return for supervising a

graduate student’s apprenticeship in college teach-

BEFORE THE TERM: COURSE

ing. The TA in turn performs an array of vital

REVIEW AND ROLE

support services, under the professor’s direction,

SPECIFICATIONS

while preparing for his future career. Through the

TA, the students benefit from the opportunity for

TA assignments should be made as early as possible,

personalized consultation and additional, often more

preferably well before the start of the term. Early

participatory instruction than is possible in a large assignments allow time for the faculty and TAs to dis-class with a single faculty member. It is an all-around cuss the course and their mutual responsibilities, as win-win arrangement.

well as to prepare to meet them. This extra time is

But often the faculty-TA relationship isn’t as

crucial for first-time TAs and for experienced TAs

productive and mutually rewarding as it can be. Few

taking on new assignments. TAs also need the assur-

professors are trained in supervisory techniques, and ance that they will have support and guidance when

TAs may be afraid to reveal their ignorance by asking the need arises.

too many questions. In addition, the relationship

If you are faculty, count yourself very fortunate

requires time and effort that one or both parties may to have one or more TAs, as only a handful of other

not be willing to give.

faculty nationwide have them. But realize that they

Like all other professional relationships, the

are university employees as well as graduate students.

successful TA-faculty team thrives on respect, trust, It is your professional obligation and duty to supervise 95

96

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

them, which means that you are largely responsible

Faculty responsibilities typically involve con-

for their performance (Perlmutter, 2008b). Supervis-

structing quizzes, tests, and assignments, supervising ing means assigning work to them, instructing them

TAs doing these tasks, advising TAs on discus-

on how to perform the work, monitoring the quality

sion sections or laboratory content and methods,

of their performance, and giving them feedback on

coaching them in presentation and teaching skills,

their performance. This feedback may not always be

providing them with feedback on their teaching

a pat on the back. It may involve additional instruc-

effectiveness, scheduling and directing TA staff

tion or even disciplining. When necessary, you will

meetings, and ensuring TAs have whatever supplies

have to be tough, like a boss.

they need.

Hold an introductory staff meeting at least a few

Depending on the size of the class and the num-

days before classes begin. Start this meeting by ex-

ber of TAs involved, you may wish to assign an ex-

plaining the institutional policies and rules related to perienced TA to act as a head TA in charge of facil-their employment, such as those pertaining to sexual

itating communication among all course TAs. Strong

harassment, the privacy of student records, and labo-

interpersonal skills are essential here, as the head TA ratory safety (Perlmutter, 2008b). Then hand out your must maintain a good rapport with both you and

syllabus and present your course objectives, organiza-fellow TAs.

tion, and schedule. Review general mechanics, such

Finally, try to give realistic estimates of the ex-

as grading policies and grade complaint procedures,

pected time and effort required of the TAs to perform even if TAs will not be conducting sections. Stu-their job well. While these estimates will vary from

dents’ opinions of the course are influenced greatly

person to person and from week to week, they will

by the efficiency and proficiency of the instruc-

allow TAs to plan their schedules more efficiently. Be tional staff.

sure you know the number of hours per week that

Next, firmly establish the work roles that you

each TA assignment involves.

and your TAs will play. TAs must know what is

expected of them, as well as what they can expect

of their faculty supervisors. To ensure clarity, issue DURING THE TERM: REGULAR

a written statement of mutual responsibilities, and

MEETINGS AND TEACHING

make sure everyone understands and agrees.

FEEDBACK

When allocating course duties, try to divide

tasks fairly, equitably, and efficiently. TA responsi-Once you and your TAs reach a clear understanding

bilities may include assisting in course preparation, on duties and expectations, everyone must first and

preparing or instructing (or both) in laboratories,

foremost maintain open lines of communication. If

leading discussions, conducting help and review

a TA cannot approach you or the head TA with a

sessions, attending lectures, guest lecturing, taking problem, the situation may very well worsen and sour

roll, assisting in assignment and test preparation,

the student’s learning experience. You and the head

being available during tests, grading, calculating

TA should actively invite TAs to seek your problem-

grades, and holding office hours. More experienced

solving advice.

TAs, those whom Nyquist and Wulff (1996) call

Of course, communication is a two-way street.

“colleagues-in-training” and “junior colleagues,”

If you are a TA and you fail to seek or follow good

can take on more important tasks than can “senior

counsel, openly disagree with your supervising faculty learners,” who just hope to survive their TAship and

in front of your students, or otherwise are insubordi-get the students to like them. The former can try

nate, you are likely to get in trouble with the class and their hand at designing activities and assignments,

eventually your faculty. Clear, open communication is preparing handouts, constructing tests, writing

everyone’s responsibility and is vital to the success of rubrics, and taking over the lecture part of the class.

the course.

Course Coordination Between Faculty and Teaching Assistants 97

The easiest and most reliable means of main-

techniques and formats will give students the most

taining good communication is the regular, usually

productive chance to actively work with and play

weekly, staff meeting. (A chatroom meeting is a

with the material? Should the TAs start off with a

high-tech alternative to face-to-face.) Scheduling

quiz or a warm-up writing exercise on the major

these meetings is the faculty’s or head TA’s charge.

points of the reading, the lab procedures, or the last They are essential to the smooth coordination of

lecture? If discussion is appropriate, what questions multisection courses, which are so common at the

should the TAs pose, and in what order? Should

introductory levels of the laboratory sciences, math-

they be written on the board, on an overhead

ematics, English, and the foreign languages. These

transparency, or in a handout? Or should they be

meetings should follow a fairly standard agenda of

handed out in advance and serve as a study guide? If

reviewing current and upcoming material, discussing

reviewing homework problems is scheduled, should

TAs’ lesson plans, and assessing students’ learning. Let the TAs have students present their solutions on

us take each major topic in turn.

the board? Should the TAs have new problems for

the students to solve in small groups? How about

Agenda Item 1: Course Content

a short simulation, a case study, or role playing to

actively engage students in the material? If a preexam If you are faculty, you must ensure that your TAs have review session is planned, what review questions

enough background in the course material to teach

would be helpful? How should the students address

or tutor it. If you don’t require them to attend your them? By writing practice answers individually,

lectures, you might give them copies of your lecture

outlining them in small groups, or playing aca-

notes. Some TAs may benefit from supplementary

demic game like Jeopardy or Millionaire? In any

readings as well. You should also provide your TAs

case, the TAs should not be giving the answers

with leads on the student trouble spots they can an-

themselves.

ticipate and should address in section and office hours.

The options are more numerous than the tech-

Especially in the lab sciences, TAs must be well versed niques and formats covered in this book, and appro-in the principles, procedures, hazards, and typical pit-priate ones deserve discussion. This way, the weekly

falls of the next laboratory. In addition to your TAs’

meetings can function as a teaching methods seminar

reputation with students, safety may be at stake here.

for the TA staff.

If you are a TA, you are responsible for coming

The purpose that supplementary sections and

to these weekly meetings having read the upcoming

help sessions should not serve is to introduce new

readings, including the lab manual section, where ap-

material. As this book emphasizes throughout, few

plicable. Raise all your questions; reserve the “dumb”

students can master material only through passive ac-

ones for your fellow TAs if you prefer. You too should tivities like reading and listening, even when sup-anticipate student stumbling blocks and ask for help

plemented with note taking. Students must also talk

in leading your students over them. Whether your

about it, write about it, apply it to problems, use it supervising faculty requires it, do attend all lectures.

in experiments, act it out, see it demonstrated, or

Students often complain on their teaching evaluation

demonstrate it themselves—in essence, do something

forms about TAs who do not. Always rehearse a

with it. The TA’s most important role is to design and lab you’ve never done before, preferably with a

facilitate opportunities for students to work actively TA who has.

with material already introduced.

In addition to covering teaching techniques and

Agenda Item 2: TAs’ Lesson Plans

formats for the coming week, these TA meetings

The second major item is what the TAs should

should review what did and didn’t work last time.

do with the upcoming material in their discussion

TAs need not repeat one another’s mistakes, and

sections, labs, or help sessions. What teaching

they can help each other solve their problems.

98

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Occasionally, too, a classroom failure may call for

If you are a supervising faculty member fortu-

some damage control, while a genuine success merits

nate enough to have all experienced TAs for a partic-

recognition, even imitation.

ular course, you may be tempted to shorten or forgo

the weekly staff meetings. But resist the temptation.

Your holding these meetings demonstrates your com-

Agenda Item 3: Student Learning

mitment to teaching excellence and staff morale.

The final item of business, assessing students’ learnOne more faculty responsibility—an essential

ing, has two parts. The first part is openly discussing facet of supervision—is to observe and give con-how well students are learning the material. This in-

structive feedback to each of your TAs who appears

formation may come from homework assignments,

before a class. The fact that you care enough to do so quizzes and tests, classroom participation, classroom reinforces your TAs’ loyalty and morale, along with

assessment exercises, consultations with students, and the value of teaching in general. It is best to follow general impressions. By identifying areas of student

up each observation with a one-on-one consultation

focusing on strategies for professional growth and

weakness, all parties know what to review before pro-

improvement. For obvious reasons, do not delegate

ceeding to new material.

this task to a head TA.

If you’re a TA, you probably have an inside track

on how the students are doing. Generally students talk more often and more candidly with you than with

EXTENDING MANAGING

faculty. So you have a clearer picture of their involve-TO MENTORING

ment and difficulties with the material. You are also probably better positioned to identify individual students who are having academic or emotional trouble.

Beyond supervising TAs, you will no doubt become a

mentor to certain graduate students. The mentoring

When such cases arise, advise your supervising faculty.

relationship is complex enough to deserve discussion.

But for the students’ sake, tell them about the campus The role of the mentor is a multifaceted one that

units that can help them (see Chapter Nine and the

extends beyond the role model (Murray, 1991). For

Appendix).

example, the mentor serves as a source of information The second part of assessing students’ learning

about the profession, and she tutors the protégé (or

is planning the next stage of assessment and testing.

mentee) in specific professional skills. During times of Whether you are faculty or a TA, have other

personal turmoil, the mentee seeks advice and a sym-

members of the course staff review a draft of any

pathetic ear, casting the mentor in a confidant role.

assignment, quiz, test, or grading rubric you have

The mentor also helps the protégé plot a suitable ca-

drafted. It is amazing what another set of eyes can

reer path.

pick up—not just typos but also double-barreled

However, the mentoring relationship is a two-

multiple-choice items, ambiguous essay questions,

way street. As such, the protégé must accept respon-

unclear performance descriptions on rubrics, awk-

sibility for and be willing to advance his own growth ward sentence structure, confusing word use, and all

and development. In addition, he must test his abilities the other verbal land mines that are so hard to avoid.

against new challenges and honestly evaluate them in

Sometimes, too, instructors forget to model their test view of career options. Finally, he must be receptive questions on the homework and in-class exercises to

to the mentor’s instruction, coaching, and construc-

which they accustomed their students. It is also easy tive criticism.

to overlook important material covered just a few

The mentoring relationship reaps returns for

weeks ago. Assignments, quizzes, tests, and grading

the mentor as well. According to some mentors,

rubrics are important enough to ask others to review.

it heightens their motivation. While some senior

Course Coordination Between Faculty and Teaching Assistants 99

personnel face burnout, mentors are constantly

•

Protégés, ask for regular feedback, and don’t expect reminded of what they first found interesting and

to hear you’re doing a perfect job. There is always

exciting about their profession. They become

a lot to learn and plenty of room for improve-

more inspired leaders, enhancing overall group and

ment. If you find it hard to believe, just trust for

organizational productivity.

now that your mentor’s constructive criticism has

Here are some practical guidelines for both

nothing to do with her not liking you as a person

faculty and graduate students (Blandford, 2000;

or not believing in you as a junior professional.

Cameron, 1993; Nicholls, 2002; Perlmutter, 2008a):

In fact, it’s a compliment: it means she considers

you strong enough to hear the truth and make

improvements. If your mentor’s counsel sounds

•

Mentors, reasonably pace your training and advis-inappropriate, ask for clarification, ponder it for

ing. Remember that you didn’t learn everything

while, and pass judgment later.

at once or the first time through.

•

Protégés, regard your relationship as a college

•

Mentors, cultivate an environment where tem-

teaching tutorial, and budget time for it. If you

porary lapses and setbacks, fears, and failures can

feel overwhelmed, let your mentor know.

be shared, forgiven, overcome, and filed away as

learning experiences. Give your protégés as many

•

Mentors, do not ask or expect your protégés

chances as your course can afford. Whenever

to provide you with personal services, such

appropriate, counsel them on how to avoid

as babysitting, house-sitting, running errands

or conquer the problem. For instance, advise

for you, or driving you around, except in an

an anxious protégé to visualize a worst-case

emergency.

classroom scenario, and together brainstorm ways

•

Protégés, respect the boundaries of the relation-to defuse the situation. (Your institution’s teaching ship and both your mentor’s and your own limited

center can help.)

time. Resist asking your mentor to do too much

•

Protégés, bring your performance fears out in the for you. Focus your meetings on professional busi-open. Your mentor can help you calm your ad-

ness, not issues in your personal life.

equacy anxieties, control your stage fright, and

feel capable of handling your worst-case teach-

•

Mentors, be aware that your protégés are probably ing nightmare. Remember that your mentor faced

unfamiliar with various university and department

similar fears at one time. She hasn’t forgotten, and

regulations, office procedures, routine deadlines,

she wants to help you.

and endless other professional protocols that are

now second nature to you. Do convey this infor-

•

Mentors, resist the natural temptation to mold your mation explicitly.

protégés into your clones. Each must find and ex-

•

Protégés, take what your mentor tells you seriously, plore his own potential.

even if some of it sounds silly or strange.

•

Protégés, try on and borrow elements of your mentor’s teaching and testing style that fit you,

•

Mentors, give fair, encouraging, and caring feed-but also shop around. Great teaching takes many

back on your protégés’ job performance on a reg-

forms. Developing your own unique excellence is

ular basis. They may not know when they have

a creative, long-term process.

done well and when they haven’t, and they need

to know, for both your and their sakes. Critical re-

•

Mentors, expect to feel occasionally that your marks can evoke a defensive, even fearful reaction.

time and wisdom are going unappreciated. Your

So couch them in terms of ways to improve and

protégés probably lack the experience to put your

expectations for future success.

good counsel and training into perspective at

100

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

the moment. Know that they will acquire that

meantime, expect occasional tensions and imbal-

perspective and gratitude over time.

ances. Mentors can find it hard both to accept and

•

Protégés, thank your mentor for her time, advice, relinquish their superior role; protégés can vacil-instruction, and caring. Credit her when appro-

late between dependency and the desire to break

priate. Don’t forget that while supervising a course

away. Talking about these stresses informally can

is an assigned task, the more personal attention

resolve them.

your mentor is giving you is purely voluntary and

its own reward.

These same principles apply to mentoring re-

•

Mentors and protégés, review your relationship pe-lationships between faculty and undergraduates and

riodically. Bear in mind that if it should endure,

between senior faculty and junior colleagues. At any

it is designed to self-destruct over the long run

level, the positive effects of the relationship are mutuas the protégé evolves into a colleague. In the

ally substantial and the material costs minimal.

P A R T 3

CHOOSING AND USING

THE RIGHT TOOLS

FOR TEACHING

AND LEARNING

C H A P T E R 11

Matching Teaching Methods

with Learning Outcomes

Yourselectionofteachingmethodsiscritical designprocessin ChapterTwo into coursedevel-to your students’ learning. Derek Bok (2006)

opment: selecting the best teaching methods for en-

argues that it is even more important than the

abling students to achieve your learning outcomes. If content you select, and he bemoans that faculty dis-your course design is your skeleton, your methods are cussions neglect the topic of pedagogy. He points out the muscles on the bones. Fortunately, some of your

the discouraging research finding that the average stu-fellow faculty have devised and conducted research

dent cannot remember most of the factual content of

on numerous teaching innovations over the past few

a lecture within fifteen minutes after it ends. How-

decades, so you have plenty of worthy options to

ever, he notes, lessons learned through more active

choose from. Both Part Three of this book, which

teaching methods can leave students changed forever:

opens with this chapter, and Part Four focus on a

wide range of well-researched methods that we know

In contrast, interests, values, and cognitive skills are all can generate powerful learning experiences, assuming

likely to last longer, as are concepts and knowledge

they are implemented properly and for appropriate

that students have acquired not by passively reading

purposes. Chapters Twelve through Twenty-Two lay

or listening to lectures but through their own mental out ground rules for setting up and managing them

effort . . . . The residue of knowledge and the habits correctly, and this chapter gives an overview of which of mind students take away from college are likely to be determined less by which courses they take than methods to use when, where the “when” depends on

by how they are taught and how well they are taught.

your learning outcomes.

(pp. 48–49)

As Figure 11.1 graphically shows, every aspect

of your course should be built on the foundation of

So let’s turn to the critical issue of how you will

your student learning outcomes. These are your

teach your courses. This chapter extends the course

ends throughout the term. Your teaching methods

103

104

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Figure 11.1

The Model of the Perfect Fit in Course and Curriculum Design Appropriate Assessment of Students’ Performance on Outcomes ( the measurement of progress to the ends)

Teaching Methods and Learning Experiences to Help Students Achieve Outcomes ( the means to the ends)

Student Learning Outcomes

( the foundation, the ends)

are the means to your ends. They encompass all the

precious little research to suggest that other methods learning experiences you give your students in the

were more effective for most purposes. We have since

form of assignments and activities (active listening is learned that you can’t craft effective learning experian activity), whether in class or as homework. Your

ences just by hammering lectures into students’ heads.

ends should guide your choice of means, right down

The material doesn’t stick well. But now we have a

to each individual class. The most appropriate means

toolbox full of options. As an instructor, one of your will afford your students practice in the performances most critical tasks is to choose the best tool for the specified in your learning outcomes—practice speci-job—or more accurately, choose among the best tools

fically in the way you plan to assess student per-

for the job, as you can usually identify several means formances for a grade (by multiple-choice items, a

to reach your ends.

case analysis, a literary analysis, a creative multimedia project, a concept map, a diagram, a design, solutions TYPES OF TOOLS

to word problems, a solution to a real-world problem, and so on). Your assessment instruments in turn

should measure your students’ progress to your ends

A complete teaching toolbox contains three types of

as directly as possible. These instruments—quizzes,

tools to select from: course formats, major teaching

test questions, assignments, and any other course

methods, and teaching “moves.” “Teaching moves”

component on which you see student results—should

refers to the ways you explain and elaborate on mate-

mirror your outcomes very closely.

rial, the learning strategies you share with your class, If your outcomes go beyond students’ recogniz-the short in-class activities and exercises you have stu-ing and regurgitating correct facts, terms, equations, dents do (interactive lecture breaks, for example), and the questions you ask them to contemplate. You may

and algorithms—and they should go beyond these

not think you have control over your formats, but you knowledge-level cognitive operations—you should be

may be able to negotiate a change.

familiar with multiple means to help your students

achieve your ends. As eminent psychologist Abraham

Maslow once said, “If your only tool is a hammer,

Formats

you’re apt to go around treating everything as if it

A course format defines the course meetings—

were a nail.” In the not-so-distant past, faculty knew specifically, the setting and expected activities for the and used the lecture almost exclusively, and there was class period. It may be lecture meetings only, lecture

Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

105

meetings with discussion sections, lecture meetings

only formats that faculty saw as highly effective on

with laboratories, lecture meetings with skill activity almost all of the objectives were discussion/lecture

sessions, discussion meetings with some lecture,

and seminar. Not surprisingly, both have a great deal discussion meetings with skill activity sessions, skill of student activity and small-size classes.

activity sessions alone, or seminar. Let us clarify some You probably think of formats as assigned to you

terms. In a seminar, as opposed to a discussion

with the courses you teach. Introductory courses are

section, students prepare their contributions in

typically lecture based, perhaps with discussion, lab, advance, whether research presentations, arguments,

or skill activity sections, while freshman seminars are points of view, or interpretations. In a skill activity set up as seminars or discussion sessions. Courses in section, students have the chance to practice some-the major may be anchored in the lecture, discussion, thing, so it may be scheduled in a room other than a

skill activity, or seminar format. If you believe that a regular classroom, such as a computer lab, a language different format from the one currently attached to

lab, a studio, a stage, a music room, or a clinic with your course would enhance student learning, make a

medical equipment or a simulated human body. It

case to your department chair. Point out that you have may even take place outside or off-campus, perhaps

learning outcomes that your students are unlikely to

in a botanical garden, a forest, a clinic, or a hospital.

achieve because, for all practical purposes, the current We don’t know the direct learning impact of

format prohibits the effective teaching methods and

different formats, but we do know quite a bit about

moves. You have nothing to lose by asking, and you

the effects of closely related variables: the degree of and your students have a great deal to gain.

in-class student activity (or lack thereof; see Chapter The next two sections address which teaching

One) and class size. Hoyt and Perera (2000) identified methods and moves are most effective for various

not the actual impact of formats but the success that learning outcomes.

faculty perceive formats having for certain learning

objectives. These objectives were somewhat different

Teaching Methods

from the outcomes presented in Chapter Two for

course design. In Hoyt and Perera’s study, they ranged The tools in this category comprise major methods—

from “substantive knowledge” (of facts, principles

that is, multiweek assignments or in-class activities and theories, and applications) to much higher-order

that require considerable time. We may schedule one

abilities such as general cognitive and academic

on a regular or semiregular basis during a course or

skills (communication and critical thinking), life-

devote one or more class periods to it. For instance, long learning skills (research and interest), personal we rarely have just one discussion or one small-group development (broad liberal knowledge and values

activity during a term-long course. If we do plan

development), and other skills and competencies

just one, it probably won’t work very well because

(team skills and creativity). Hoyt and Perera found

it will violate the students’ expectations. If we choose that faculty consider lecture/discussion, lecture/lab, to give interactive lectures, we probably give many

and lecture/skill activity pretty ineffective—“average”

of them. If we use the case method to teach, we

at best—in equipping students to meet these ob-

probably assign and debrief at least several cases dur-jectives. (Lecture/lab achieved a high average on

ing the term. We may have just one simulation, one

factual knowledge, as did lecture/discussion on

substantial problem-based learning assignment, or one values development.) Discussion/lecture did better

service-learning project, but each of these is likely on general cognitive and academic skills and personal to require students to put in hours of class time or

development (liberal knowledge). Skill activity

homework.

alone earned high ratings on developing students’

Before turning to the outcomes each method

communication skills, creative capacities, and liberal may serve, let us review the basic definitions of these knowledge, but average on the other objectives. The

methods. Most of them merit their own chapter or

106

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

at least a section of a chapter in Parts Three, Four, or revealed by students’ electronic responses to con-Six of this book.

ceptual questions; an extension of electronic daily

quizzes to motivate students to do the readings

•

Lecture: Instructor presenting material and answer-

(Chapters Eighteen and Twenty-Three)

ing student questions that arise (Chapter Twelve)

•

Case method: Students applying course knowledge

•

Interactive lecture: Lecture with two- to fifteen-to devise one or more solutions or resolutions to

minute breaks for student activities (such as

problems or dilemmas presented in a realistic story

answering a multiple-choice objective item,

or situation; an individual, small-group, or whole-

solving a problem, comparing and filling in lec-

class activity (Chapter Nineteen)

ture notes, debriefing a minicase, doing a think-

•

Inquiry-based or inquiry-guided learning: Students pair-share exercise, or a small-group discussion)

learning or applying material in order to meet

every twelve to twenty minutes (Chapter Twelve)

a challenge, such as to answer a question, con-

•

Recitation: Students answering knowledge and duct an experiment, or interpret data (Chapter

comprehension questions (Chapter Fourteen)

Eighteen)

•

Directed discussion: Class discussion that follows

•

Problem-based learning: Student groups conducta more or less orderly set of questions that the

ing outside research on student-identified learning

instructor has crafted to lead students to certain

issues (unknowns) to devise one or more solu-

realizations or conclusions or to help them meet a

tions or resolutions to fuzzy problems or dilemmas

specific learning outcome (Chapters Thirteen and

presented in a realistic story or situation (Chapter

Fourteen)

Twenty)

•

Writing and speaking exercises: Any of many infor-

•

Project-based learning: Students (as individuals or mal assignments and activities, usually in-class and

in groups) applying course knowledge to produce

ungraded, to help students learn material, clarify

something, such as a report (written or oral), pro-

their thinking, or make progress on a formal as-

cess or product design, research or program pro-

signment (Chapter Seventeen)

posal, or computer code; often paired with coop-

•

Classroom assessment techniques: Informal assign-erative learning

ments and activities, usually in-class and ungraded,

•

Role plays: Students acting out instructor-assigned to inform the instructor how well students are

roles, improvising the script, in a realistic and

mastering new material just presented or read; of-

problematic social or interpersonal situation

ten overlap with writing and speaking exercises

(Chapter Fifteen)

(Chapter Twenty-Eight)

•

Simulations: Students playing out, either face-

•

Group work/learning: Students doing a learning ac-to-face or on computer, a hypothetical social

tivity or creating a product in small groups of two

situation that abstracts key elements from reality

to six in or out of class; must be carefully managed

(Chapter Fifteen)

by the instructor (Chapter Sixteen)

•

Service-learning with reflection: Students learning

•

Student-peer feedback: Students giving one another feedback on a written or an orally presented

from the experience of performing community

product, usually a written draft or practice speech

service and systematically reflecting on it (Chapter

(Chapter Seventeen)

Fifteen)

•

Cookbook science labs: Pairs or triads of students

•

Fieldwork and clinicals: Students learning how to conducting a traditional, often predictable exper-conduct research and make sound professional

iment following prescribed, cookbook-like pro-

judgments in real-world situations

cedures (Chapter Twenty-Two recommends and

illustrates more effective inquiry-based labs)

The outcomes we will consider should sound

•

Just-in-time teaching: Instructor adjusts class activi-familiar. As you will recall from Chapters One and

ties and lectures to respond to the misconceptions

Two, the first six on this list come from Bloom (1956)

Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

107

and Anderson and Krathwohl (2000), the seventh

•

Evaluation/Evaluating: To make a judgment, assess from Perry (1968), and the last from Nelson (2000):

validity, select, and defend

•

Cognitive Development: To progress from dualism

•

Knowledge/Remembering: To memorize or recog-

to multiplicity to relativism to a tentative commit-

nize facts, terms, principles, or algorithms

ment to the most worthy perspective available; to

•

Comprehension/Understanding: To translate, restate come to understand the nature of knowledge as

in one’s own words

inherently uncertain but subject to definite stan-

•

Application/Applying: To use, apply, make useful dards of comparison

•

Analysis/Analyzing: To identify and examine

•

Shift in Mental Models: to replace a faulty under-components, compare and contrast, identify

standing of a phenomenon with the discipline’s

assumptions, deduce implications

more valid mental model

•

Synthesis/Creating: To make connections, identify new relationships, design something new (new to

Table 11.1 brings these outcomes and the

students)

major methods together in answering the question,

Table 11.1

Teaching Methods Found to Be Effective for Helping Students Achieve Different Learning Outcomes Cognitive

Shift in

Outcome Method

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Development

Models

Lecture

X

Interactive lecture

X

X

a

a

a

a

a

Recitation

X

X

Directed discussion

X

a

a

a

a

a

a

Writing/speaking exercises

X

X

X

X

X

Classroom assessment

techniques

X

X

X

X

Group work or learning

X

a

a

a

a

a

Student-peer feedback

X

X

X

Cookbook science labs

X

X

Just-in-time teaching

X

X

X

Case method

X

X

X

X

X

Inquiry based or inquiry

guided

Xb

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Problem-based learning

Xb

X

X

X

X

X

Project-based learning

Xb

X

X

X

X

X

Role plays and simulations

X

X

X

X

X

Service-learning with

reflection

X

X

X

X

X

Fieldwork/clinicals

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Note: An X indicates this method can help students achieve this learning outcome if the method is properly implemented to serve this outcome. Poor implementation or implementation for other ends may mitigate against students’ achieving the outcome.

aDepends on the lecture-break tasks, the discussion questions, or the group tasks assigned.

bThe knowledge acquired may be narrowly focused on the problem or project.

108

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

“Which methods for which outcomes?” Two caveats

period—one to help students recall the readings, the

are in order. First, this table represents the general next to clarify a knotty point, another to explain

findings of a large body of literature on the methods new material, yet another for a lecture break in

listed. The references are embedded in the chapters

which students apply the material, and so on. If one

and chapter sections on each method. Second, the

doesn’t seem to work well, you can immediately try

efficacy of the interactive lecture, directed discussion, another. When a teaching move involves the students

and group work depends entirely on the tasks

in an activity, not only do they get practice, but you you have students do or the questions you have

obtain immediate feedback on their misconceptions,

them discuss. For identifying productive tasks and

misunderstandings, and mastery. In turn, you can

questions for your outcomes, see Chapters Twelve

give them immediate feedback. Thus, many of these

and Fourteen as well as Exhibit 11.1 in the next

moves serve to assess as well as teach.

section. This table lists short in-class assignments and Exhibit 11.1 lists effective teaching moves by the

activities that help students master each of Bloom’s

learning outcome they serve. Some of them specify

cognitive operations.

what you can do or say in class to familiarize your

students with different ways of thinking about and

working with the material. The rest are activities

Teaching Moves

and exercises for your students to give them practice Teaching moves are strategies for clarifying content

and you feedback on their learning. The existing

and giving students practice in thinking about and

literature addresses these mini-methods only in terms working with it, as reflected in your learning out-of their relationship to Bloom’s cognitive operations comes. The practice you give them should at least

(Goodson, 2005). But these operations do represent

resemble the ways you plan to assess their learning.

key learning outcomes and easily map onto Anderson

Compared to major methods, these mini-

and Krathwohl’s (2000). This list is not exhaustive, but methods entail much less time and commitment. You

it is a rich heuristic device that may inspire you to de-may use a dozen or more of them in a given class

vise additional teaching moves to serve your purposes.

Exhibit 11.1

Effective Teaching Moves for Six Learning Outcomes (Bloom’s Cognitive Operations)

KNOWLEDGE

For You to Do

•

Suggest prior knowledge to which students can link new and future information and knowledge.

•

Chunk knowledge into coherent groups, categories, or themes.

•

Share devices to improve memory such as mnemonic patterns, maps, charts, comparisons, group-ings, highlighting of key words or first letters, visual images, and rhymes.

•

Point out parts, main ideas, patterns, and relationships within sets of facts or information.

For Students to Do

•

Practice recalling and restating information.

•

Practice recognizing or identifying information.

•

Practice recalling and reproducing information.

•

Practice restating concept definitions and principles.

Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

109

COMPREHENSION

For You to Do

•

Outline new or upcoming material in simple form.

•

Concept-map or mind-map new or upcoming material.

•

Explain with concrete examples, metaphors, questions, or visual representations.

For Students to Do

•

Restate or paraphrase and summarize information or knowledge.

•

Describe or explain phenomena or concepts using words different from those used in the initial teaching.

•

Identify the correct meaning of concepts or terms.

•

Add details or explanations to basic content.

•

Relate new to previously learned content.

•

Construct visual representations of main ideas (mind or concept maps, tables, flowcharts, graphs, diagrams, or pictures).

APPLICATION

For You to Do

•

Give multiple examples of a phenomenon that are meaningful to students.

•

Define the procedures for use, including the rules, principles, and steps.

•

Provide the vocabulary and concepts related to procedures.

•

Explain steps as they are applied.

•

Define the contexts, problems, situations, or goals for which given procedures are appropriate.

•

Explain the reasons that procedures work for different types of situations or goals.

•

Ensure students’ readiness by diagnosing and strengthening their command of related concepts, rules, and decision-making skills.

•

Provide broad problem-solving methods and models.

•

Begin with simple, highly structured problems; then gradually move to more complex, less structured ones.

•

Use questions to guide student thinking about problem components, goals, and issues.

•

Give students guidance in observing and gathering information, asking appropriate questions, and generating solutions.

For Students to Do

•

Generate new examples and nonexamples.

•

Paraphrase the procedures, principles, rules, and steps for using or applying the material.

•

Practice applying the material to problems or situations to gain speed, consistency, and ease in following the problem-solving steps.

•

Practice choosing the types of problem-solving strategies for different situations.

•

Solve simple, structured problems, then complex, unstructured ones.

110

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Practice recognizing the correct use of procedures, principles, rules, and steps with routine problems, then complex ones.

•

Demonstrate the correct use of procedures, principles, rules, and steps with routine problems, then complex ones.

ANALYSIS

For You to Do

•

Point out the important and the unimportant features or ideas.

•

Point out examples and nonexamples of a concept, highlighting similarities and differences.

•

Give a wide range of examples, increasing their complexity over time.

•

Emphasize the relationships among concepts.

•

Explain different types of thinking strategies, including how to think open-mindedly, responsibly, and accurately.

•

Emphasize persistence when answers are not apparent.

•

Ask students questions that require their persistence in discovering and analyzing data or information.

•

Encourage students to self-evaluate and reflect on their learning.

•

Ask questions that make students explain why they are doing what they are doing.

•

Explain and model how to conduct systematic inquiry, detect flaws and fallacies in thinking, and adjust patterns of thinking.

For Students to Do

•

Classify concepts, examples, or phenomena into correct categories.

•

Summarize different types of thinking strategies.

•

Use types of thinking strategies to analyze and evaluate their own thinking.

•

Practice choosing the best type of thinking strategy to use in different real-world situations and explaining why their choice is superior.

•

Detect and identify flaws and fallacies in thinking.

•

Identify and explain instances of open- and closed-mindedness.

•

Identify and explain instances of responsible versus irresponsible and accurate versus inaccurate applications of thinking strategies.

•

Answer questions that require persistence in discovering and analyzing data or information.

SYNTHESIS

For You to Do

•

Promote careful observation, analysis, description, and definition.

•

Explain the process and methods of scientific inquiry.

•

Explain and provide examples of how to identify a research problem, speculate about causes, formulate testable hypotheses, and identify and interpret results and consequences.

•

Model inquiry and discovery processes.

•

Encourage independent thinking, and avoid dead ends and simplistic answers.

•

Show students examples of creativity to solve problems.

•

Encourage students to take novel approaches to situations and problems.

•

Explain phenomena using metaphors and analogies.

Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

111

•

Give students examples of reframing a problem—turning it upside down or inside out or changing perceptions about it.

•

Explain and encourage brainstorming.

•

Pose questions and problems with multiple good answers or solutions.

•

Give students opportunities for ungraded creative performance and behavior.

For Students to Do

•

Explain their experiences with inquiry activities and the results.

•

Resolve a situation or solve a problem that requires speculation, inquiry, and hypothesis formation.

•

Resolve a situation or solve a problem requiring a novel approach.

•

Design a research study to resolve a conflicting finding.

•

Write the limitations section of a research study.

•

Write the conclusions section of a research study.

•

Develop products or solutions to fit within particular functions and resources.

•

Manipulate concrete data to solve challenging thinking situations.

•

Practice reframing a problem—turning it upside down or inside out or changing perceptions about it.

•

Explain phenomena using metaphors and analogies.

EVALUATION

For You to Do

•

Create conflict or perplexity by posing paradoxes, dilemmas, or other situations to challenge students’

concepts, beliefs, ideas, and attitudes.

•

Explain how to recognize and generate proof, logic, argument, and criteria for judgments.

•

Explain and show students the consequences of choices, actions, or behaviors.

•

Provide relevant human or social models that portray the desired choices, actions, or behaviors.

•

Explain with examples how factors such as culture, experience, desires, interests, and passions, as well as systematic thinking, influence choice and interpretations.

For Students to Do

•

Evaluate the validity of given information, results, or conclusions.

•

Draw inferences from observations, and make predictions from limited information.

•

Explain how they form new judgments and how and why their current judgments differ from their previous ones.

•

Identify factors that influence choice and interpretations, such as culture, experience, desires, interests, and passions, as well as systematic thinking.

•

Detect mistakes, false analogies, relevant versus irrelevant issues, contradictions, and faulty predictions.

•

Critique a research study.

•

Use research and analysis to devise the best available solutions to problems, and explain why they are the best.

•

Choose among possible behaviors, perspectives, or approaches, and provide justifications for these choices.

Note: Partially adapted from Goodson (2005) with permission.

112

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

DANGEROUS KNOWLEDGE?

intervention as outside interference, consider this:

Shouldn’t someone be responsible for ensuring

As we build our knowledge of the effectiveness of

that students receive the most effective learning

different teaching formats, methods, and moves for

experiences available? If so, should faculty who use

various learning outcomes, we run out of excuses for

methods outside the approved range be disciplined?

relying on traditional lecture. Bok (2006) accuses the But then what happens to pedagogical innovation

faculty of avoiding pedagogical debates for their own and experimentation? Perhaps we can head off this

self-protection from change:

quandary of questions and the threat of regulation by taking responsibility ourselves for choosing the best It is relatively easy to move courses around by

teaching strategies.

changing curricular requirements. It is quite another An instructor’s pedagogy also has an impact

matter to decide what methods of pedagogy should

on her student ratings and comments. While most

be altered. Reforms of the latter kind require much

students do enjoy active learning strategies, some do more effort . . . . To avoid such difficulties, faculty have not (Amador, Miles, & Peters, 2006; Qualters, 2001; taken the principle of academic freedom and stretched Thorn, 2003). In fact, a few of the best teaching

it well beyond its original meaning to gain immunity

methods for helping students acquire high-level

from interference with how their courses should be

thinking skills can lower student ratings (for example, taught . . . . Teaching methods have become the per-problem-based learning). Some students protest that

sonal prerogative of the instructor rather than a subject the methods require too much work, lack sufficient

appropriate for collective deliberation. The result is to structure, demand more independence than they can

shield from faculty review one of the most important

or want to manage, or cause undue grade anxiety,

ingredients in undergraduate education. (p. 49)

since they are being asked to do things they’ve never done before. Some complain that they have to teach

Bok’s stinging critique of the faculty may be apt,

themselves too much and that their instructor isn’t

but it also opens a Pandora’s box. What if instructors doing her job. At the same time, colleges and univer-weren’t completely free to choose their pedagogy?

sities are striving to serve and retain students. In this What if they could choose from only a limited

crunch, which should take higher priority: Student

range of methods and moves that were mandated

satisfaction or student learning? This is a value matter for different learning outcomes? This prospect isn’t

that only institutions can resolve for themselves. But absurd. After all, don’t departments, institutions, and we can help tremendously by explaining why we

both regional and professional accreditation agencies choose certain teaching methods and moves over

already mandate learning outcomes? If they mandate

others. When we refer to the research standing

the ends of instruction, why shouldn’t they man-

behind our selections, we reaffirm to our students

date the means to those ends? If you regard such

our commitment to do the best by them.

C H A P T E R 12

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

Lecturing is the transfer of information from the notes of the lecturer to the notes of the student without passing through the minds of either.

—mortimer adler, aristotelian philosopher

Lecture has gotten a bad rap over the past Thereismorebadnewsforlecturelovers:from few decades. Although it is just as effective

research dating back to the 1920s, lectures have an

as any other teaching method in conveying

infamous reputation for being utterly forgettable.

factual knowledge, numerous studies find that it falls Their much-replicated “forgetting curve” for the

short in promoting deeper-level student learning and

average student is 62 percent recall of the material

development—specifically, the ability to examine

just presented, 45 percent recall three to four days

and possibly change attitudes and values, critical

later, and only 24 percent recall eight weeks later

thinking and problem-solving skills, the transference (Menges, 1988).

of knowledge to new situations, open-minded

Lecture doesn’t have to be the mindless,

exploration of controversial or ambiguous material,

quickly forgotten transmission that Mortimer Adler

mastery of a performance technique or technical

described. It can be saved—but only if it is used

procedure, improvement in communication skills,

for the right purposes, is carefully prepared and

personal and social adjustment, motivation for further eloquently delivered, and is supplemented with

learning, satisfaction with the course, and retention thought-provoking student activities. With lecture,

of knowledge after the course is over (Bligh, 2000;

less is more.

Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Hake, 1998; Jones-Wilson,

2005; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, Smith, & Sharma,

1990). In addition, it encourages a surface (superfi-

PURPOSE: TO LECTURE

cial, nonconceptual) approach to learning (Canfield,

OR NOT TO LECTURE?

2002). For deep learning and higher-order thinking

outcomes, more student-active methods such as

As Chapter Eleven advised, student learning out-

discussion and inquiry-based learning are more

comes should guide choice of methods. Already listed

successful.

above are outcomes that lecture doesn’t serve well.

113

114

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

According to Table 11.1, straight lecture has proven

a higher cognitive level, such as application, analysis, effective only in helping students acquire knowledge, synthesis, and evaluation. Deleting a redundant

and given its forgetting curve, it hasn’t done a very lecture frees plenty of class time for student activities.

good job of that. Still, knowledge is at the heart

Besides, if a lecture primarily repeats the readings, any of our enterprise. Therefore, for at least segments

rational student will decide either to do the readings of a class period, the lecture may be essential. The

or to attend lecture (see Chapter Twenty-Three)—no

list below sets out occasions when it is probably

doubt not what you intend.

the most effective and efficient option (Bligh, 2000; If you are uncertain of your students’ level of

McKeachie, 2002):

expertise, preparation, and interest, have them do one or more classroom assessment exercises (see Chapter

•

You want to model a problem-solving approach

Twenty-Eight) before planning your lectures. Other-

or a kind of higher-order thinking before asking

wise you risk going over the students’ heads or boring your students to try it themselves.

them with basics.

•

You want to provide some quick background

knowledge that is not summarized in print.

•

You want to adapt very sophisticated knowledge

PREPARING AN EFFECTIVE

to your students’ level and needs in a way that no

LECTURE

other available source does.

•

You want to present a particular organization of

Bligh (2000) lays out several organizational models for the material that clarifies the structure of the read-lectures, but they share the common ground summa-

ing, the course, or the field.

rized here.

•

You want to add your personal viewpoint on the

material or your own related research.

Class Outcomes

•

You want to update your students with the very

First, determine your student learning outcomes for

latest material, and it is not yet available from

the class period. What precisely do you want your

another source that is targeted to the students’

students to learn that day? How will you express your level.

outcomes to the class? If a lecture serves only one or

•

You want to pique your students’ curiosity and

two of the multiple objectives you have for the class, motivation to learn if your style is very expressive.

then it should fill only part of the period.

You will note that some of these occasions are

qualified by the lack of other sources. If you can find Overview

the same material online or in print, you may want to Whenever possible, limit one class’s lecture to one

make it a reading assignment. In fact, some faculty

major topic. Some students find it difficult to pick

have turned their lectures into homework, posting

up a lecture from one period to the next, and global

print versions, videos, or podcasts of them on the

thinkers need to see the big picture before any of

course website for students to download. Many of

the details and examples will make sense. Also lay

these faculty teach online or hybrid courses, but some out a time-content schedule, bearing in mind the

just want to reserve their face-to-face class time for two most common lecturing errors: trying to include

student activities.

too much material and delivering the material too

Do not lecture material that simply duplicates

fast. While you’re lecturing, you will have to proceed the assigned readings or other course materials.

slowly enough, including pausing after major points,

Repetition and redundancy have their place, but

for students to take notes. So if anything, underbudget student-active exercises can duplicate the material at content.

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

115

To start planning your lecture, you might begin

concept to application; familiar to unfamiliar; debate by subdividing the major topic into ten- to fifteen-to resolution; a chronology of events (a story or

minute chunks. Then plan student-active breaks of

process)—to name just some common possibilities.

two to fifteen minutes between these chunks. Later

To appeal to different learning styles, try to vary your in this chapter, you find a wide variety of short break organization from one minilecture to another (see

activities that you can use, but feel free to devise your Chapter Twenty-Five).

own. Most of them can be (and have been) con-

ducted in large lectures of hundreds of students as well Organizational Outline

as smaller classes. So class size need not deter you.

Make whatever organization you select explicit to

Finally, allow two to five minutes for some kind of

students. For instance, tell the class, “I am going to recap activity at the end.

describe some common manifestations of dysfunc-

Let us turn to the internal organization of your

tional family behavior, then give you a definition and lecture. The skeleton for any lecture is the intro-general principles that apply to the phenomenon.”

duction, the body, and the conclusion (McKeachie,

It is best to provide a general outline of the main

2002).

points (only) of your lecture on the board, on an overhead or slide, or in a handout. An outline will ensure Introduction

that students are following your logical flow, espe-

The ideal introduction has three parts, the order of

cially if you occasionally refer to it to point out your which is really an aesthetic decision: (1) a statement location in the lecture. It should also highlight new that frames the lecture in the context of the course

terms you are introducing. However, keep this outline objectives, (2) a statement reviewing and transitioning skeletal so students still have to take notes. Research from the material covered in the previous class

shows that the process of note taking has learning and period, and (3) an attention grabber for the new

retention benefits (see the “Teaching Students to Take material. Effective attention grabbers include an

Good Notes” section later in this chapter.)

intriguing question the lecture will answer, a story or In addition, try to integrate as many of these

parable that illustrates the new subject matter of the learning aids as you can:

day, a demonstration of a nonobvious phenomenon,

a reference to a current event or movie, a case or

•

Visuals. As you plan the material, think about how a problem that requires the lecture’s information

you can convey or repackage it visually—in pic-

to solve, or a strong generalization that contradicts tures, photographs, slides, graphic metaphors, dia-common thought. The idea is to draw in the class

grams, graphs, and concept or mind maps (spatial

with surprise, familiarity, curiosity, or suspense.

arrangements of concepts or stages linked by lines

or arrows). Prepare these graphics for presentation

Body

to the class. While such visual aids facilitate al-

The body is your presentation and explication of new

most everyone’s learning, they can be critical for

material. It is within this section that you subdivide students with a visual learning style (see Chapters

the major topic into minilectures, each of which

Twenty-Five and Twenty-Six).

should revolve around only one major point. There

•

Examples. Think about illustrating abstract con-is no best logic to follow in organizing a minilecture cepts and relationships with examples. Ideally

except to keep it simple. You can choose from an

these examples should be striking, vivid, current,

array of options: deduction (theory to phenom-

common in everyday life, and related to students’

ena/examples); induction (phenomena/examples to

experiences (past, present, or future). Making

theory); hypothesis testing (theory to hypothesis

them humorous also helps students remem-

to evidence); problem to solution; cause to effect;

ber them.

116

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Restatements. Consider how you can restate each and so on, including any visual aids you plan to put on important point in two or three different ways—in

the board. Some instructors like to color-code their

scholarly terms, lay formal language, and infor-

notes for quick visual reference. If a graphic organimal language. Restatements not only demystify

zation does not appeal to you, make a sketchy outline the material, making it more comprehensible, but

of your lecture. But be sure it’s very sketchy. In any they also build students’ vocabulary and encourage

case, write big and leave a lot of white space.

their own paraphrasing of the material.

The habit to avoid is writing out sentences

(except direct quotes). That may tempt you to read

Conclusion

them in class, in which case you will lose spontaneity, For learning purposes, the conclusion should be a

expressiveness, flexibility, eye contact, and, most im-two- to five-minute recap of the most important

portant, psychological contact with the class, lulling points in your lecture. It is too important to be rushed students into a passive, inattentive state of mind

after the bell. You should plan and direct the recap

(Day, 1980). Confine the words in your notes to key

activity, but the students should do it. The prospect of concepts and phrases, transitions to make explicit

having to retrieve the material helps keep all students to the class, and directions to yourself (for example, on their toes. The recap activity may take the form

“board,” “pause,” “slide,” “survey class,” “ask class of an oral summary presented by one or more

question,” “break activity #2—voltage problem”).

students, a free-recall writing exercise (see Chapter Seventeen), a classroom assessment technique such

as a one-minute paper (see Chapter Twenty-Eight),

DELIVERING AN EFFECTIVE

or a quiz.

LECTURE

In fact, we know that giving a quiz, graded or

ungraded, at the end of the class period is a particu-Actually a lecture can be highly motivational, but its larly effective means to ensure students retain more

success depends on the lecturer. An expressive, en-

of your lecture content. Recall lecture’s infamous

thusiastic instructor can ignite students’ interest in the forgetting curve: 38 percent of the material gone

material, and a reserved, boring one can douse it.

within minutes, 55 percent in three to four days, and The platform skills that convey energy, dy-76 percent in eight weeks. Now recall from Chapter

namism, and charisma can be isolated—they are listed

One that people learn less by reviewing material

in Chapter Seven—and learned. Public speaking

and more from being tested or testing themselves

courses and clubs help people develop and practice

on it, as the latter activities involve greater cognitive eye contact, effective verbal pacing and pausing, vocal processing and practice retrieving (Dempster, 1996,

quality and variety, facial expressions, gestures and 1997; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). This is why

movements, lectern and microphone use, visual aid

giving some kind of test right after a lecture doubles display, and so on. Those who start out weak in

both factual and conceptual recall after eight weeks

these skills but work on them diligently can achieve

(Menges, 1988).

impressive results within a year.

Some scholars may dismiss such presentation

Your Lecture Notes

techniques as mere acting. In fact, some people seem

Your lecture notes should be easy to read at a glance to have a knack for them, while others acquire them

and as sketchy as you can handle. After all, you know only with concentration and practice. Acting or

the material. So all you need is a map showing your

not, like it or not, these public speaking techniques next conceptual destination. Therefore, consider lay-have a powerful impact on students’ motivation and

ing out the lecture graphically in flowcharts, concept learning, as well as on their course and instructor

maps, tree diagrams, Venn diagrams, network models,

evaluations (see Chapter Thirty-Two). But this is

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

117

true only to the extent that an instructor relies on the This is unsettling, sobering news for the higher

lecture format. With the variety of teaching methods

education community. After all, if highly motivated

available, no instructor need rely on it much at all.

learners like medical students demonstrate such a brief Therefore, instructors have a choice. Those who

attention span in the lecture setting, what can we ex-happen to have an expressive, dynamic public person-

pect of our undergraduates? No doubt enthusiastic,

ality or are willing to acquire the trappings of one can engaging lecturers can extend that narrow time hori-afford to use the lecture more in their teaching. (For zon. But aside from improving our platform skills,

the sake of student learning, however, even the most

what else can we do when we must lecture?

charismatic instructor should not depend on it exclu-

In a word, pause. One study supports the prac-

sively.) Those who do not project such a persona can

tice of pausing at least three times during each lecture avoid lecturing whenever possible and employ more

to allow pairs or small groups of students to discuss student-active methods. In brief, you should play to

and clarify the material (Rowe, 1980). Another

your natural and acquired strengths. The wide array

recommends pausing for two minutes every fifteen to

of effective teaching methods should put to rest the

eighteen minutes to permit student pairs to compare

notion that good teachers are born and not made.

and rework their notes (Ruhl, Hughes, & Schloss,

1987). This latter study was designed experimentally

with a control group receiving a series of traditional INCORPORATING STUDENT-nonstop lectures and a treatment group hearing the

ACTIVE BREAKS: THE

same lectures with periodic pauses. Both groups

INTERACTIVE LECTURE

took free-recall quizzes during the last three minutes of each lecture (that is, students individually wrote Well-chosen student-active breaks—coined “brainy

down everything they could remember from the

breaks” by Rick Beam, academic dean and vice

lecture) and the same sixty-five-item multiple-choice president for academics at Johnston Bible College—

test twelve days after the last lecture. In two different comprise the heart of the interactive lecture, trans-courses repeated over two semesters, the treatment

forming the traditional lecture into a series of

group performed much better than the control group

minilectures.

on both the quizzes and the test—better enough to

make a mean difference of up to two letter grades

Attention Span Limits

(17 percentage points), depending on the cut-off

According to studies cited in Bligh (2000), Bonwell

points. Translated into learning terms, sacrificing the and Eison (1991), and Middendorf and Kalish (1996),

least important 12 percent of your lecture content for a lecture begins with a five-minute settling-in period periodic two-minute pauses can increase the learning

during which students are fairly attentive. This

of your current C students to that of your current

attentiveness extends another five to ten minutes, and B students and even A students.

then students become progressively bored, restless,

and confused. Focus and note taking increasingly

Ideas for Student-Active Breaks

drop—some students effectively fall asleep—until the

last several minutes of the period, when they revive

During student-active breaks, students should be in

in anticipation of the end of class. Bligh reconfirmed some way interacting with the material (and often

this pattern using students’ heart rates as a measure of one another) for brief, controlled periods of time.

arousal. Even medical students display similar patterns Add in the appropriate breaks, and suddenly you

of concentration levels: an increase over about fifteen can help your students achieve almost every type of

minutes, followed by a sharp decrease.

learning outcomes—those requiring any of Bloom’s

118

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

cognitive operations and those involving cognitive

hold them accountable for participating in the activ-

development.

ity. Let these examples serve as your inspiration to

Ideally the breaks should supply students the

conceive and experiment with your own innovations:

opportunity to practice performing your learning

outcomes or applying the lecture content you just

•

Pair and compare. Students pair off with their gave. How well they complete the break task should

neighbor and compare lecture notes, filling in what

furnish you with a diagnosis of their understanding.

they may have missed. This activity makes students review and mentally process your minilecture content.

After all, you shouldn’t move onto the next chunk of

Time: Two minutes.

material unless students comprehend this one.

•

Pair, compare, and ask. Same as pair and com-To keep the breaks brief and controlled, care-

pare but with the addition that students jot down

fully time-control them. Inform your students that

questions on your minilecture content. Students

they will have exactly X number of minutes to com-

answer one another’s questions; you then field the

plete the activity you assign them. Strictly enforced, remaining ones. Time: Three minutes, plus one or

those limits keep students focused on the task. When

two minutes to answer questions.

in doubt, allocate a little less time than you think some

•

Periodic free-recall, with pair-and-compare op-

of them will need, but feel free to extend the limit a tion. Students put away their lecture notes and write bit if they are working diligently. To make managing

down the most important one, two, or three points of

easier, bring a timer or stopwatch to class. Also cir-your minilecture, as well as any questions they have.

culate around the classroom to let students know you

The first two times you do this, use a slide, over-

are listening to them and are willing to answer any

head, or the board to give instructions. After that, just procedural questions.

telling them will do. Again, this activity makes stu-

These breaks work well in any size class. In

dents review and mentally process your minilecture

larger classes, however, having students work with

content. Students may work individually, but if they

their neighbors (in ad hoc pairs or triads) is quicker work in pairs or triads, they can answer some of each and easier than having them get into preorganized

other’s questions. Time: Two minutes, plus one or

small groups, unless you arrange for group members

two minutes to answer students’ questions.

to sit together during every class.

•

Reflection/reaction

paragraph. Students in-

Ask students to work and talk as quietly as they

dividually write out their affective reaction to the

minilecture content (or video or demonstration).

can, but expect the classroom to get noisy anyway.

Ask a few volunteers to share. Time: Three to four

After their activity time is up, you can bring even the minutes.

largest class to silence within seconds by taking this

•

Solve a problem. Students solve an equational tip from cooperative learning researchers: set the rule or word problem based on your minilecture. (Chapter

that you will raise your hand when the time is up. Tell Twenty-One describes a problem-solving strategy

your students that as soon as they see your hand up,

you can teach them.) They can work individually or,

they should immediately stop talking and raise their

better yet, in ad hoc pairs or triads. Randomly call on hands. The rest of the class will quickly follow suit.

a few individuals or groups to sample their answers.

Below are some commonly used break activi-

Time: One to three minutes for problem solving,

ties, along with the number of minutes each typi-

depending on the problem’s complexity, plus one or

cally takes. (They come from Bonwell & Eison, 1991; two minutes for surveying responses.

Cross & Angelo, 1993; McKeachie, 2002; and infor-

•

Multiple-choice item. Put a multiple-choice

mal collegial exchanges.) Some of them recommend

item, preferably a conceptual one, related to your

randomly calling on individual students or groups to

minilecture on the board, a slide, or an overhead,

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

119

and give four response options. Survey your student

Three to four minutes for individual note writing

responses (the next section, “Surveying Student Re-

plus two to four minutes for pair fill-ins and question sponses: Hands, Flashcards, and Clickers,” explains

answering.

various ways to do this). You can also ask students to

•

Pair/group graphic. Students develop a con-

rate their confidence level in their answer. Then give cept map, mind map, thinking map, graphic

them a minute to convince their neighbor of their

organizer, picture, diagram, flowchart, or matrix of

answer, and resurvey their responses. This activity,

your minilecture content in pairs or small groups.

developed by Mazur (1997), makes students apply

What they are actually doing is integrating and

and discuss your minilecture content while it’s fresh reassembling their understanding of the content

in their minds, and it immediately informs you how

into a big picture graphic. It is one of the purest

well they have understood the material. You can

constructivist activities you can have them do, and it then clarify misconceptions before proceeding to

yields powerful learning benefits, which will be de-

new material. Time: Three minutes, plus one to two

tailed in Chapter Twenty-Six. Because these graphics

minutes to debrief and answer questions.

provide you with deep insight into your students’

•

Multiple-choice

test

item. In contrast to

interpretation of the material, you may want to

the multiple-choice item task above, this one puts

collect and peruse them. You may also want to return

students in pairs or small groups to compose multiple-them with some feedback—at the very least, pointing

choice items on your minilecture for a test you will

out any misconceptions and oversimplifications they

give in the future. As we know, this is no easy task, reveal. Time: Three to ten minutes in class.

so provide your students some training in good

•

Quick case study. Students debrief a short

test-item writing. Teach them Bloom’s taxonomy.

case study (one to four paragraphs) that requires

Tell them the characteristics of plausible distractors them to apply your minilecture content to a realistic, (see Chapter Twenty-Nine). Show them examples

problematic situation. (Chapter Nineteen addresses

of well-constructed and poorly constructed items,

the case method, including tips on developing your

then lower-order recall and higher-order thinking

own cases.) Display a very brief case on an overhead

items. Students will be motivated to write test items or slide; put longer ones in a handout. You may

you will want to use because they will know the

add specific questions for students to answer, or

answers to the ones they submitted. And you will

teach your class the standard debriefing formula:

never have to write multiple-choice items again. Nor

What is the problem? What is the remedy? What

will students ever again blame you for items they

is the prevention? Instruct students to jot down

find tricky, ambiguous, or too hard. Of course, you

their answers. Students can work individually or,

should reserve the right to tweak their submissions.

better yet, in ad hoc pairs or small groups. Time: Time: One to three minutes for each item they write.

Three to five minutes, depending on the case length

•

Listen, recall, and ask; then pair, compare, and

and complexity, plus five to ten minutes for class

answer. Students only listen to your minilecture—no exchange and discussion.

note taking allowed. Then they open their notebooks

•

Pair/group and discuss. Students pair off with and write down all the major points they can recall,

their neighbor or get into small groups to discuss an as well as any questions they have. Instruct students open-ended question that asks them to apply, analyze, to leave generous space between the major points

or evaluate your minilecture content or to synthesize they write down. Finally, they pair off with their

it with other course material. This question should

neighbor and compare lecture notes, filling in what

have multiple possible correct answers. (Refer to

they may have missed and answering one another’s

Chapter Fourteen for helpful questioning schema

questions. Again, this activity makes students review and question framing techniques.) Have students

and mentally process your lecture content. Time:

outline their answers in writing. This activity makes

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

students examine and extend, as well as process, your port may be your minilecture, the readings, or

minilecture content and serves as an effective prelude evidence they generate on their own.

to a general class discussion. Time: Three to ten min-

•

Reorder the steps. Students correctly sequence utes, depending on the question’s complexity, plus

items that you present to them in mixed order. These

five to ten minutes for class exchange and discussion.

items may be elements of a procedure, process, cycle,

•

Pair/group and review. Same as above but

method, plan, strategy, or technique.

with an essay question designed for preexam review.

•

Reach a conclusion. Students logically infer the Randomly select student pairs or groups to present

implications of facts, concepts, or principles drawing their answers to the class. Then mock-grade them

from data, opinions, events, or solutions. The inferred based on your assessment criteria (explain these be-conclusions can be probable results, probable causes, fore the exercise). You can also have the rest of the or outcomes.

class mock-grade these answers to help students learn

•

Paraphrase

the

idea. Students put an

how to assess their work. Time: Three to ten minutes, idea—a definition, theory, statement, procedure, or

depending on the question’s complexity, plus five to

description—into their own words. This task can be

fifteen minutes for pair/group presentations.

just a check on their comprehension or a little more

when you add the twist of targeting the paraphrase

Here are several other break activities that ap-

to a specific audience.

ply to a wide range of content areas. Johnston and

Cooper (1997) developed them under the apt name,

Finally, the least cognitively active break is what

“quick-thinks.” Each takes one or two minutes, plus

Kodani and Wood (2007) coin the seventh inning

one to four minutes to survey responses:

stretch. For a few minutes, they play some popular music and have their students just get out of their

•

Correct the error. Using immediate minilec-

seats and stretch. Afterward their classes seem more

ture content, students correct an error in a statement, alert. When Kodani and Wood surveyed their classes,

equation, or visual that you have intentionally made.

their students overwhelmingly appreciated this break

The error may be an illogical or inaccurate statement, and believed it enhanced their learning. But a few

premise, inference, prediction, or implication.

would have preferred it to be content focused.

•

Complete a sentence starter. Students ac-

You will find many other options for student-

curately complete a sentence stem related to your

active breaks in Chapter Seventeen (writing-to-learn

minilecture content. The completed statement may

activities), Chapter Eighteen (learning in groups),

be a definition, a category, a cause-and-effect rela-

and Chapter Twenty-Eight (classroom assessment

tionship, an implication, a rationale, or a controversy.

techniques).

Present students with a sentence starter that requires reflection and higher-order thinking, not just rote

Surveying Student Responses: Hands,

knowledge, to complete.

•

Compare and contrast. Students identify sim-

Flash Cards, and Clickers

ilarities or differences between parallel elements in When you develop a lecture break around a

your minilecture, such as theories, methods, mod-

multiple-choice item—or for that matter, a true-

els, events, problems, solutions, or artistic or literary false item—follow up by surveying your students’

works. To comprise a true analysis task, students must responses before and after they discuss their answers work on elements that have not been compared and

with their neighbors. The fact that students com-

contrasted in your minilectures or the readings.

mit to an answer makes them more interested in

•

Support a statement. Students garner support finding out what the correct response is, and the

for a statement—a conclusion, inference, theory,

results furnish you with valuable feedback on their

opinion, or description—you present. Sources of sup-

understanding.

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

121

You can collect those responses in several ways.

students may be concerned about your knowing their

First, you can ask for a show of hands for each

individual responses, you can turn off your receiver’s response. While very simple, this option has its

identification function and tell them that you have.

weaknesses. In a large class, you can’t know for sure Almost all of the research on the impact of this

whether everyone is participating, and since you

lecture break technique—that is, posing a multiple-

don’t have time to count all the hands, you may get

choice question and surveying student responses

only a vague measure of the distribution of responses.

before and after a short pair discussion—has been

You have no record of these responses either.

conducted on clickers. Compared to a traditional

One additional problem is that responses are not

lecture, incorporating clicker breaks enhances student anonymous, so students may mindlessly change their

learning substantially, often by an entire letter grade answers just to follow the crowd.

on tests (Crouch & Mazur, 2001; Deal, 2007; Fagen, Second, you can distribute four 8 1 / 2- by 11-inch Crouch, & Mazur, 2002; Kaleta & Joosten, 2007;

“flash cards” (you can use heavy cover stock) of differ-Mazur Group, 2008; Reay, Li, & Bao, 2008; addi-

ent colors to each student, where each color signifies tional studies listed at Bruff, 2008). The good news

an answer—for example, red for a, blue for b, yellow

is that lower-tech survey methods, at least flash cards, for c, and green for d. Then have students put up

produce learning gains just as impressive as clickers the color of paper that signifies their response choice.

(Lasry, 2008). The payoff comes from the lecture

With this alternative, you can get a somewhat better

break activity itself, not the technology. Therefore, idea of your participation rate and response distri-the vast majority of the learning-relevant research

bution, especially if you have students put the stock involving clickers applies to hand raising and flash

directly in front of their faces. If you see a face, you cards as well.

can coax the student to make a choice. With students’

The student learning benefits of this lecture

faces covered by their choices, the answers become

break technique over traditional lecture derive from

more anonymous as well. The only problem is that

its very specific effects. The literature reports that this you have no record of the responses.

technique increases class attendance, broadens class

Third, you can use clickers, more formally

participation to literally the entire class, multiplies the known as personal or classroom response systems

chances for both student-to-student and student-to-

or voting systems. Students simply push a button

faculty interaction, affords students regular practice indicating their response, and a receiver connected to in higher-order thinking, teaches them to critically

your computer picks up the signals and immediately

examine and defend their thinking, improves the

tallies all the answers, displaying them in a histogram formative assessment of learning, provides instant

on your monitor. You then have the option of

feedback to students and the instructor on their

revealing these results to the class. Of course, this understanding and retention, heightens students’

alternative involves more advanced technology,

attention and alertness in class (even early and late in which means that your institution, your students, or

the day), enhances their engagement in the material,

both have to pay for the clickers and your receiver.

and develops their metacognition, allowing for

In addition, you have to learn the technology.

mindful and self-regulated learning (Bergtrom, 2006;

However, you can tell exactly who isn’t participating Bruff, 2009; Crouch & Mazur, 2001; Deal, 2007;

(and push them to participate) and exactly how the

Fagen et al., 2002; Kaleta & Joosten, 2007; Mazur responses distribute, and you can archive the survey

Group, 2008; Radosevich, Salomon, Radosevich, &

results. The process is completely anonymous so only

Kahn, 2008). You can also use this technique to assess you know how each student is responding. This

students’ prior knowledge and launch discussion.

also means you can take a confidential survey on

Clickers offer the additional opportunities to do the sensitive attitudinal or behavioral topics. If you think following: take attendance instantly, with or without

122

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

posing a question; grade participation, even in a

contents of slides and transparencies, through which

large class, based on the number of correct responses we often move too quickly. They also tend to

to questions; play academic games, such as Mil-

leave out the instructor’s corrections, descriptions

lionaire; and give objective-item quizzes, as long as of demonstrations, examples of applications, the

considerable cheating isn’t likely.

structure of arguments, and technical definitions

Of course, these benefits depend on the

(Johnstone & Su).

questions; they must require higher-order thinking

And some students don’t take notes at all,

and problem-solving skills. For example, they may

especially when they have a hard copy of the lecture’s ask students to choose an example of a principle or

presentation slides. But having these slides often gives to choose a principle to explain an example. They

them a false sense of security that all the material

may survey an opinion, pose an ethical dilemma,

they need to know for the test lies in front of them, have students classify a concept, or challenge them to and they may think they will remember what they

make a prediction. (Chapter Fourteen on questioning

have heard and read at the same time. We must

techniques supplies many more examples.) If clickers

realize that most young students did not take notes in collect the responses anonymously, the questions

high school. Teachers often provided handouts and

can address controversial or personal matters, such

gave easy tests. If students succeeded academically

as students’ opinions on hot-button issues or private without taking notes before, they may question why

experiences that illustrate a theory, principle, or

they should now. So they don’t even know that they

finding (Bruff, 2007, 2009).

should take notes, let alone how to take good ones.

Since this lecture break technique started in

large science classes, the STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) already have

Selling Students on Note Taking

large online collections of well-tested break questions; start with Databases of Concept Questions at www

Before teaching your students how to take good

.skylight.science.ubc.ca/cqdatabases.

Bruff

(2009)

lecture notes, you have to motivate them to take

and his website (2008) at www.vanderbilt.edu/cft

them, to sell them on the benefits. Fortunately, you

/resources/teaching resources/technology/crs biblio

can make your case from plenty of research (Carrier,

.htm offer other sources of questions for a much

1983; Johnstone & Su, 1994; Kiewra, 1985, 2005;

wider array of disciplines.

Potts, 1993; numerous studies cited in Bligh, 2000,

and McKeachie, 1994). Students who take their own

notes and review them later reap numerous cognitive

TEACHING STUDENTS TO TAKE

payoffs over those who just listen. Note taking

GOOD NOTES

fosters attention to and concentration on the lecture, accurate judgments about the relative importance

Many students come to college—and often leave it—

of content (from nonverbal cues), understanding of

with poor note-taking skills. The average student’s

the development and structure of the knowledge,

notes include only 10 percent of the lecture (John-

far-transfer application of the material, and deeper

stone & Su, 1994) and 40 percent of its critical ideas cognitive processing. In deeper processing, learners

(first-year students, just 11 percent) (Kiewra, 1985, engage in more thoughtful and active listening.

2005), and only about a third of students take decent They are paraphrasing, interpreting, and questioning, notes (Johnstone & Su). One reliable way to get your as well as integrating the new material into their

material into those notes is to write it on the board.

organized bank of prior knowledge. Perhaps most

But students also make errors copying material,

compelling to students, taking notes better cements

particularly diagrams, equations, numbers, and the

the knowledge in their memories, especially if they

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

123

review their notes later. This means note takers per-

In addition, explain to your students that the real

form better on all types of tests than non–note takers.

art of taking notes is putting the most knowledge into Of course, it is just as important that students review the fewest possible words, preferably their own words.

their notes, but you can incorporate lecture breaks

It is not transcription. Students should avoid writing and end-of-class activities to ensure they review

complete sentences unless the specific wording is

them at least once (see the “Ideas for Student-Active crucial. So tell them to take notes sparingly, dropping Breaks” section above).

all unnecessary words and recording only the words

Kiewra (1985) conducted some intriguing

and symbols needed to recall the idea they signify

research on the relative value of students studying

later.

from their own lecture notes versus the instructor’s

Finally, share with your class some note-taking

lecture notes. On factual tests, students who studied pointers, such as these (Bligh, 2000; Ellis, 2006;

only the instructor’s notes performed better than

Kiewra, 2005):

those who studied only their own notes. In fact,

this former group did better even if they did not

•

Arrive early to class to warm up your mind. Re-

attend lectures! However, the highest factual test

view your notes from the previous class and the

scorers were those who studied both the instructor’s

assigned readings. Ask the instructor to clarify

notes and their own notes. When students took

what doesn’t make sense.

tests requiring higher-order thinking, the instructor’s

•

Avoid cramming your notes or writing too small.

lecture notes were of no help to them. It seems, then, Strive for easy readability. Leave a generous left

that for higher-order cognitive outcomes, the greater margin for rewriting important words and abbre-focus and deeper thought processes that note taking

viated key content later.

engages really pays off.

•

Occasionally glance back over the last few lines

of notes you have taken, and rewrite any illegible

letters, words, or symbols.

Teaching Note Taking

•

Make key words, important relationships, and

After selling students on note taking, acquaint

conclusions stand out. Underline, highlight,

them with some note-taking systems (Bligh, 2000;

box, or circle them, or rewrite them in the left

Ellis, 2006; Kiewra, 2005). Show them how to

margin.

make a formal outline with first-order headings,

•

Organize your notes according to the instructor’s

second-order headings, and so on. (Points of equal

introductory, transitional, and concluding words

importance or generality should start at the same

and phrases, such as “the following three factors,”

distance from the left margin.) Tell them about the

“the most important consideration,” “in addition

Cornell system: drawing a line down each page

to,” “on the other hand,” and “in conclusion.”

one-third in from the left, taking lecture notes on the These phrases signal the structure of the lecture:

right two-thirds of the page, and reserving the left

cause and effect, relationships, comparisons and

one-third for reviewing activities, such as condensing contrasts, exceptions, examples, shifts in topics,

the notes and rewriting the most critical content. You debates and controversies, and general conclu-might also teach your students how to reorganize

sions.

their notes into concept maps, mind maps, graphic

•

Identify the most important points by watching

organizers, matrices, and diagrams so they can take

for certain instructor cues: deliberate repetition,

advantage of the learning and memory benefits of

pauses, a slower speaking pace, a drop in pitch, a

visual representation (see Chapter Twenty-Six). No

rise in interest or intensity, movement toward the

one strategy is equally effective for everyone, so

class, displaying a slide or transparency, and writing advise students to try out at least a couple.

on the board.

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Pay close attention to the instructor’s body

Making Note Taking Easier for Students

language, gestures, and facial expressions, as

We can do a lot to help students take good lecture

well as changes in pace, pitch, and intonation.

notes and have already addressed these strategies in

The instructor’s subtlest actions punctuate and

detail earlier in this chapter. Still, they are worth add meaning to the substance of the lecture.

highlighting here. For starters, we can organize

•

Whenever possible, draw a picture, concept

our lectures clearly and simply, giving each an

map, or diagram to organize and abbreviate the

introduction, a body, and a conclusion and making

relationships in the lecture material. Most people

the organization explicit in class. We can deliver

can recall a visual more easily than a written

our content using nonverbal cues (vocal variety,

description.

gestures, movement) to signal the most important

•

Develop and use your own shorthand, such as

points. We can chunk the content into minilectures,

abbreviations and symbols for common or key

each making one major point, with student-active

words—for instance, btw for between, + for and,

breaks between them. Finally, we can schedule

b/c for because, rel for relationship, df or = for

lecture breaks and end-of-class review activities that definition, cnd for condition, nec for necessary

allow students to review, fill in, and revise their

or necessitates, hyp for hypothesis, for change, notes, individually or in pairs (Carter & Van Matre, T4 for therefore, + for more, − for less, ↑ for 1975; Kelly & O’Donnell, 1994; O’Donnell & increasing, ↓ for decreasing; → for causes, ←

Dansereau, 1993).

for is caused by, and two opposing arrows for

The most effective learning aids we can fur-

conflicts with.

nish are skeletal lecture notes that provide just the

•

Take notes quickly and at opportune times. Use

main headings and subheadings of our lectures and

the instructor’s pauses, extended examples, repeti-

appropriately sized blocks of white space below them.

tions, and lighter moments to record notes. You

Students need these notes at the beginning of the lec-can’t afford to be writing one thing when you

ture, so you should post them for downloading on the

need to be listening closely to another.

course website or distribute them as handouts before

•

To help speed your note taking, try different pens

starting class. With an even sketchy lecture outline

until you find an instrument that glides smoothly

in front of them, students tend not to get lost, and

and rapidly for you.

they quickly figure out from the amount of white

•

If the instructor tends to speak or to move from

space how much note taking to do on their own.

point to point too quickly, politely ask him or her

According to research, students not only take better

to slow down. You are probably the most coura-

notes on skeletal outlines but also perform better on geous student of many who cannot keep up either.

tests, suggesting they learn more (Cornelius & Owen-

•

If you lose focus and miss part of a lecture, leave

DeSchryver, 2008; Hartley & Davies, 1986; Potts,

a space and ask a classmate, a teaching assistant, or 1993). To make the most of skeletal notes, we can

the instructor to help you fill in the blank.

include the type of material that students often mis-

•

Separate your own comments and reactions from

copy (diagrams, equations, numbers, and the contents

your lecture notes.

of slides and transparencies) and insert a heading and

•

Review, edit, clarify, and elaborate your notes

white space for them to record what they frequently

within twenty-four hours of the lecture, again

leave out: demonstrations, examples of applications,

a week later, and again a month later—even if

the structure of arguments, and technical definitions for just a few minutes. While reviewing, recite,

(Johnstone & Su, 1994). You can also include the di-extract, and rewrite the key concepts and rela-

rections or the triggers for lecture-break activities as tionships. With enough review, the knowledge

well as the space to record the discussion, problem

will become yours forever.

solution, answer, graphic, conclusion, most important

Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

125

points, and so on. To prevent that false sense of se-

fit into our courses. But for a small subset of students, curity that printouts of presentation slides give many note taking can actually interfere with their learning students, word-process your skeletal notes.

and recall. Those with relatively low ability, poor

Whether or not you make skeletal notes for your

short-term memory, or little prior knowledge of the

classes, you might want to display or hand out your

subject matter are often unable to assimilate new

own lecture notes just once or twice early in the term material as quickly as a lecture demands (McKeachie,

to provide students a model of how they should be

2002). They are totally dependent on our instruc-

taking notes.

tional aids, such as skeletal notes and student-active breaks like pair and compare that allow them to draw

on their neighbor’s notes. Try to get these students

MAKING THE LECTURE

special help by referring them to your institution’s

EFFECTIVE FOR EVERYONE

learning skills or academic assistance center. It may offer workshops or one-on-one tutoring in note

taking.

To encourage and enable academic success and

lifelong learning, we should incorporate as many

learning skills, such as lecture note taking, as we can

C H A P T E R 13

Leading Effective Discussions

ChapterTwelverecommendsbreakinglectures helpsyoubroadenparticipationandkeepallhands up with intermittent activities that allow stu-on deck.

dents to work with and assess their under-

standing of the material. In all but very large classes, WHEN TO CHOOSE DISCUSSION

one of the easiest and most effective student activi-

ties is a well-directed discussion. In smaller classes and seminars, this method may further your learning out-When well planned and managed, discussion can

comes and serve as your primary classtime activity.

help your students achieve every type of learn-

Certainly a “discussion section” should remain true

ing outcome with the possible exception of

to its name and rely heavily on this format.

knowledge/remembering, and it isn’t bad at that

Let’s define discussion as a productive exchange

either (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; McKeachie, 2002).

of viewpoints, a collective exploration of issues. To In fact, discussion shines in developing the skills,

abilities, and learning attitudes on which lecture

bear fruit and not degenerate into a free-association, is weak (Bligh, 2000; Bonwell & Eison, 1991;

free-for-all bull session, you as the instructor must Dallimore, Hertenstein, & Platt, 2008; Delaney,

chart its course and steer it in the right direction. It 1991; Ewens, 2000; Forster, Hounsell, & Thompson, is your responsibility to plan and control the content 1995; Gilmore & Schall, 1996; Kustra & Potter, and conduct, to keep hot air from blowing it off

2008; McKeachie, 2002; Robinson & Schaible, 1993; course. But it is also your responsibility to go with Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1999):

the breezes at least occasionally, to keep it flexible and fluid. Your challenge is to strike that delicate bal-

•

Examining and changing attitudes, beliefs, values,

ance between structure and flow. Finding that balance and behaviors

127

128

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Exploring unfamiliar ideas open-mindedly

HOW TO SET THE STAGE

•

Deep learning

FOR DISCUSSION

•

Critical thinking

•

Problem solving

The biggest challenge facing you is eliciting broad

•

Listening actively

and active participation. If you can do that, most of

•

Communicating orally

the other problems that go wrong in a discussion—

•

Transferring knowledge to new situations

domination by one or two students, topical tangents,

•

Retaining the material

silent sectors of the room—simply disappear. Just

•

Wanting to learn more about the subject matter

about all the recommendations in this chapter help

ensure that all of your students will come to a discus-The problem-solving skills that discussion

sion prepared, comfortable, and willing to contribute.

fosters apply not only to math problems but to all

kinds of solution-oriented tasks, whether they call for one correct answer, one best answer, or many possible From the First Day

correct answers. Such tasks include resolving ethical Students need to be primed for discussion, especially dilemmas, designing a research project, explaining

since they spend most of their classroom time pas-

deviations from expected results, writing a computer

sively listening to an instructor and a few particularly program, solving a case study, evaluating various

loquacious classmates. If you plan to make discussion positions on an issue, analyzing a piece of literature, an integral class activity, even if not a primary one, and developing approaches to tackling real-world

inform and prepare your students from the first day

social, political, economic, technological, and en-

of class. Let them know the primary ground rule:

vironmental problems. Because discussion models

everyone’s participation is expected and no back-

democracy, it may even promote civic engagement

benchers will be allowed. Announcing the key role

and good citizenship (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999; that discussion will play in your course will encourage Lempert, Xavier, & DeSouza, 1995; Redfield, 2000).

students to take the activity seriously. So will telling One final benefit of discussion for you as well as

them your reasons for using discussion—for instance,

your class is that across the disciplines, student ratings how the research supports its effectiveness in helping of instructors vary positively with the amount of time them achieve your learning outcomes. Follow up by

and encouragement an instructor gives to discussion

explaining how class discussions will relate to other (Cashin, 1988; Cohen, 1981).

parts of the course, such as readings, written assignBefore moving on, we should distinguish dis-

ments, and tests. When you can, build homework,

cussion from recitation, which is students answering

quizzes, and tests around both the readings and

knowledge/remembering and comprehension/un-

the discussions about them.

derstanding questions. By contrast, discussion thrives Explain the true nature of discussion—that

on higher-order questions (see Chapter Fourteen).

it thrives on the expression of different, legitimate But recitation occupies a useful place in helping stu-points of view. Disagreement enriches the learning

dents achieve several respectable outcomes: recalling experience. In fact, college is all about hearing,

and restating knowledge, terms, and facts; speaking

“trying on,” and appraising different perspectives.

the language of the discipline (Leamnson, 1999);

So students should listen actively and respectfully to expressing important material in one’s own words,

every opinion put on the table, evaluate the evidence thereby demonstrating understanding; and practicing

for and against that claim, and be prepared with

what requires drill and repetition to learn. It also

evidence to defend their own positions.

helps students retrieve the basic knowledge they need Then lead your class in a discussion—if not

for discussion.

about the syllabus (see Chapter Three) then about

Leading Effective Discussions

129

their prior knowledge of, experience with, and in-

circle or around a table, varying where you sit can

terest in the course material. Try to get every student help you equalize your eye contact and physical prox-to say something that day. You might draw students

imity. If you do not normally sit down during class,

out by directing questions to them individually, such move about the room as much as you can.

as, “Janet, what interested you in this seminar?” or

“Matt, what topics would you like to see addressed

Grading on Participation

in this course?” Cement their participation by having You may or may not wish to include the quality and

them post extensions of or comments on this first

quantity of class participation in your final grading discussion online—to a class blog, wiki, discussion

scheme. But doing so will increase the likelihood of

board, or chatroom.

your students coming to class prepared and participatHere are some other first-day primers to break

ing (Dallimore, Hertenstein, & Platt, 2006). If you do, down social barriers from the start. If possible,

you should make this very clear in your syllabus and

arrange the seats in a circle so that students can see your first-day presentation. Also explain your concep-one another. (It isn’t easy to talk to the back of a

tion of adequate quality and quantity. To help articu-classmate’s head.) Have social or subject-oriented

late your standards, put the phrase “class participation icebreakers the first day of class so students get

grading rubric” in a search engine and peruse the

acquainted (see Chapter Four). They will find it

examples your colleagues use.

easier to speak out among “friends.” Give students

To head off uneven participation, especially the

index cards to fill out with any information they’d

problem of a couple of dominant students, you can

like to share about their learning styles, hometown,

limit the number of contributions each student can

personal lives, and career aspirations. To induce them make each class before everyone has spoken. To keep

to talk, you might invite them to expand on their

track, have students display a colorful sticky note on index card information. Finally, start calling students the front of their desk for each of their contributions.

by name and helping them learn each others’ names

You can combine this system with grading, giving

by providing name tags or name tents for in-class use.

students a participation point for their first two or Continue to nurture the friendly atmosphere

three comments but no more points for any subse-

you establish on the first day by getting into the

quent ones (Lang, 2008).

habit of casually chatting with students before and

Consider the class level and size in deciding the

after class. If you have the time, make individual

weight to give participation. First-year students may or small-group appointments with them early in

feel comfortable with 20 percent in a class of twenty the term (pass around a sign-up sheet), and include

to twenty-five students but may find it unreasonably

some noncourse conversation on the agenda. Your

stressful in one of forty-five to fifty. More advanced knowledge of your students will help you pitch the

students should be able to handle a higher percentage course at the right level as well as develop a solid

even in a large class. You might have students vote

rapport with your class quickly. If your students

on the percentage (give them options) and follow the

are comfortable with you as a person and you feel

majority rule.

comfortable with them as well, your discussions will

flow more evenly and honestly.

From the start, establish good eye contact and

Setting Ground Rules for Participation

physical proximity with all of your students as equally How do you foresee conducting class discussions?

as possible. A good rule of thumb is to maintain eye

Students want to know how you will call on them.

contact with one student or, in a large class, a cluster You have several options: (1) in some predetermined

of students for at least three seconds. Your very look order—perhaps alphabetically, by seating, or by index makes a student feel included. If your class sits in a card order; (2) by raised hands; or (3) cold-calling

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

by random selection, such as shuffling and drawing

However, you should make it clear that certain

index cards with students’ names or choosing students negative behaviors will not be tolerated: purposefully who haven’t spoken recently.

steering the discussion off-track; trying to degener-

The first method ensures broad participation

ate it into a comedy act; instigating an inappropriate and preparation, but it creates a stiff, recitation type debate; personally attacking a fellow student; display-of atmosphere. In addition, it raises the stress of the ing one’s temper; asking wheedling, argumentative, or student next in line while encouraging others to tune loaded questions; or engaging in more general uncivil out. Used alone, the raised-hands method keeps the

classroom behaviors (see Chapter Seven).

class relaxed but does little to motivate preparation.

A democratic alternative to your setting up ci-

Most important, participation is bound to be uneven,

vility ground rules is to lead a class discussion on what with a few verbal individuals monopolizing the floor

those rules should be (Kustra & Potter, 2008). Ask the and most students playing passive wallflowers. You

students to recount the qualities of the best discussions may even wind up inadvertently reinforcing social

they have participated in. How did their classmates

inequities unless you make special efforts to draw

behave? How did they show mutual respect? Then ask

out and validate your female and minority students.

them about the worst discussions in their educational The third method, cold-calling by random selection,

experience. How did people treat each other? What

obviously ensures broad participation and motivates

behaviors induced the silence, anger, or fear of oth-

preparation, but some instructors resist it for fear

ers? From this point, the class can generate their own it will cause students undue discomfort. Actually

ground rules, and you can supplement as necessary.

there is no evidence to support this concern, at least One final rule to set yourself is a reassurance:

not for advanced students. In addition, cold-calling

“The only stupid question is the one you don’t ask.”

combined with graded participation is effective in inStudents are downright terrified by the prospect of

creasing both the frequency of student contributions

looking stupid or foolish to you or their peers. They and preparation for discussion (Dallimore et al., 2006).

appreciate being told that you will welcome all ques-

You may want to vary your methods for call-

tions and ensure that they are answered. A similar but ing on students. For example, when the raised-hands

modified rule should apply to all answers as well: you method fails to generate broad enough participation,

will welcome all contributions given with good in-

you might shift to cold-calling, perhaps targeting students who have been silent for a while.

tentions. But this doesn’t mean that you won’t correct If you use the cold-calling or predetermined or-faulty answers or allow other students to correct them.

der method, a good ground rule to set is the escape

hatch—that is, permitting students to pass on answer-

Bringing Equity to a Diverse Classroom

ing a question. It is demoralizing to the class and

counterproductive to the discussion to badger, belit-

If your class is especially diverse or the subject matter tle, or otherwise put a person on the spot for not

of your course encompasses race, ethnicity, and class, having a comment when you demand it. A student

it’s best to bring differences out in the open early.

with nothing to say may simply have nothing new

Brookfield and Preskill (1999) describe several class-to contribute. While it’s possible he isn’t prepared, he room activities that acknowledge and honor diversity.

may simply agree with other recent remarks, or may

In one of them, “Naming Ourselves,” students first

have no questions at the time, or may be having a bad reflect on the cultural, racial, ethnic, or socioeco-day and not feel like talking. To cover these instances, nomic group with which they identify. Then they

inform your class that you will occasionally accept re-each introduce themselves as members of their group,

sponses such as, “I don’t want to talk right now” or

stating the label they prefer for this group and what

“Will you please call on me later?”

their identification means to them—for instance, how

Leading Effective Discussions

131

it has affected their values, beliefs, language, behav-HOW TO MAXIMIZE

ior, and so on. In another, “Expressing Anger and

PARTICIPATION THROUGH

Grief,” students get into groups and exchange per-

SKILLFUL DISCUSSION

sonal experiences of cruelty set off by racial, ethnic, or MANAGEMENT

class prejudice. Then the group analyzes the stories for common and disparate themes, emotions, and effects.

Let us consider how to keep a productive discussion

To ensure gender equity, Brookfield and Preskill

going with broad student involvement.

(1999) recommend that instructors model and en-

courage female ways of interacting, such as disclosing personal information, taking risks that could lead to Facilitating Discussion

mistakes, and connecting discussion topics with per-

First and foremost, you are the discussion facilita-

sonal experiences. They also offer several classroom

tor. This may seem a trendy term, but it is a fitting exercises and assignments for acclimating students to one nonetheless. To “facilitate a discussion” means to both male and female ways of talking. One involves

make it easy for students to participate, and the prothe students’ making scrapbooks or journals focused

cess can begin before class. By arriving a little early on how gender has affected their lives. Another asks

and casually chatting with students as they arrive, you students to write down five or so demographic iden-can loosen them up for dialogue. Facilitating also entities or facts about themselves, including gender, and tails starting off the discussion and adding to it when then explain how each has shaped their point of view.

necessary. But once the discussion takes off, it largely A diverse classroom can introduce controversy

involves directing traffic (see the section on this topic and discourse that students may not know how to

below). Still, at all times, you serve as manager-on-

handle, and you shouldn’t assume that they know

call to control the focus, structure, and tone of the what civil discourse is. So either you or your stu-exchange.

dents have to establish ground rules for discussion, to Depending on the circumstances, you may

include forbidding personal attacks. If the topic may briefly assume a wide variety of roles: coach, mod-provoke racist or discriminatory remarks, stand poised erator, host, listener, observer, information provider, to intervene and return to the discussion on the sub-presenter, counselor, recorder, monitor, instigator,

ject at hand. Regardless of how you feel about the

navigator, translator, peacemaker, and summarizer.

various positions raised, do not project those emo-

During particularly animated or contentious ex-

tions to the students who express them. Protect both

changes, you may even find yourself playing referee.

the attacked and the attacker. Then have the students Congratulate yourself when students start speaking

calm down, step back, and think about what has just

to each other directly rather than through you. Your

happened. You may go from here to turn the situa-

goal is to make yourself superfluous.

tion into a teachable moment. Have students write a

reflection paper on the incident expressing not only

their feelings but what they learned. Or ask the stu-

Motivating Preparation

dents involved in the incident to restate and explain You will find dozens of ways to induce your students

their views calmly. Or defer discussing the issue until to do the readings (see Chapter Twenty-Three), and

later, and do bring it up later, after you have a strat-the following are among them as applied to discus-

egy for handling the conflict (Derek Bok Center for

sion specifically. Include the reading assignments on Teaching and Learning, 2006).

the topical agenda of the day they are due. Reading-

For more ideas on ensuring equity in your

focused discussions can be enriched by having stu-

classroom, see the “Inclusive Instruction” section in dents take notes on the readings, write a reaction to or Chapter One.

a summary of them, draft answers to study questions

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

you have prepared, compose their own written ques-

on the board, a slide, or an overhead of the day’s

tions on the readings, or make journal entries about

agenda, outcomes, topics, or the process through

their responses to them. Then allow students to use

which you will guide them. (A list of discussion

these notes, reactions, questions, and answers in the questions may justify a handout.) In other words,

discussion. They will feel more confident and more

lay out the territory that the class will travel. Not willing to participate with a written point of reference only will you look more organized, you will be more in front of them. If you want your students to take

organized, and so will the discussion. In addition, you notes, compose questions, answer study questions, or

will make it easier for students to take notes on the keep journals on the readings, collect these regularly discussion. It is a technique they find hard to master.

or periodically to ensure they are keeping up.

You might also precede the discussion with a

Depending on your discipline, you may also be

few recitation (knowledge/remembering) questions

interested in the following seminar structure, which

on the readings to refresh your students’ memory

you can learn more about and watch in process on-

and get them all on the same page. Or you might

line (SCCtv, Boyer, & Harnish, 2007). Students pre-have them read important text passages aloud (see the pare for class by marking passages in the readings that seminar structure described in the previous subsec-are puzzling, especially important, or related to other tion). Or ask them about their emotional reactions to readings or discussion themes. In class, each student the readings, such as what the content meant to them

in turn reads one passage aloud and explains why

or how it made them feel. Another technique that

she selected it while the rest of the class takes notes.

will engage everyone is a writing prompt—that is,

After all the students have shared their passages, each a reading-relevant question or provocative statement

in turn responds to their classmates’ choices and in-

that students can reflect on and write about for three sights, recounting what they have found most mean-to five minutes (Jones, 2008). This prompt may be

ingful, interesting, or novel. Some faculty and their your launch pad for the discussion.

students have found this process highly productive.

Recall that grading on participation and cold-

Igniting the Exchange

calling motivate students to prepare for discussion. So You have your choice of several proven strategies to

does calling on students in some predetermined order, stimulate a discussion (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999; but it has weaknesses that cold-calling does not.

Jones, 2008; McKeachie, 2002). One is to start with

a common experience, which may be a well-known

Readying the Class

current event or a classroom experience you have fur-

Students come to class with all manner of things on

nished, such as a video, demonstration, or role play.

their mind, and the subject matter of your course may Another is to have students brainstorm what they al-not rank among them. So before launching into a

ready know about a topic or what outcomes that they

discussion, warm up the class to the topic of the day.

anticipate of a situation or an experiment. A poten-

You needn’t follow all the recommendations below,

tially hot ignition switch is to pose a controversial or but implementing two or three will make it easier to

probing question. You can set up a student debate

launch the discussion.

in advance (see Chapter Fifteen) or play devil’s ad-

To help students put the upcoming discussion

vocate yourself. As some students can interpret your

into perspective, begin with a brief review of the pre-representing “the devil” as manipulative, untrustwor-

vious class period. But draw the highlights out of the thy, and occasionally confusing, it is crucial that you students, posing questions like, “What are the major

explain what you’re doing beforehand. While you’re

points we covered last time?” Let students refer to,

assuming the role, you might even wear a hat or a sign and thus review, their notes.

with “Devil’s Advocate” written prominently on it.

Then turn the students’ attention to the discus-

You can always open a discussion by asking

sion for the day with a road map—that is, an outline

the first in a series of questions you have planned in

Leading Effective Discussions

133

advance. As we rely on this strategy so extensively, and Once you pose a well-crafted question, allow

for good reason, the entire next chapter is devoted to sufficient time for students to respond—five to fifteen questioning techniques. Not all questions evoke the

seconds, depending on the difficulty of the challenge.

types of thinking that launch discussions. You will

This rule applies no matter what your method of call-

learn about those that do and those that don’t.

ing on students. While a few members of the class

may jump at the chance to say anything, even if it is Motivating Attention

incorrect, most students need time—more time than

we might expect—to think through and phrase a re-

A good discussion relies on all students staying alert sponse they are willing to share publicly. After all, they and listening carefully. To promote their paying

are struggling with new knowledge and thinking in

attention, tell students to take notes on the discussion a foreign language—the language of the discipline.

and tell them how to do so. You might start by

So they need time to retrieve and sort through the

advising them specifically when to take notes,

knowledge for an intelligent response, then figure out such as each time a student proffers a new and

how to express it. Extending your wait time from the

worthwhile point. It also helps to refer frequently

typical half-second (Stahl, 1994) to just three seconds to your discussion road map, write the major points

can dramatically increase the number of students with made on the board (another aid for note taking),

a response (Rowe, 1974).

and ask students to comment on and react to one

If the question is particularly difficult, lengthy,

another’s contributions. Of course, if you tell (and

or complex, you might advise students to outline

remind) students that they will need the content

their answer in writing first. Having a response jotted of the discussions to complete assignments and

down in front of them will boost their confidence

perform well on tests, they are more likely to stay

and courage. You may also get higher-quality

attentive. If some of the discussion takes place in small answers. This way, too, you can feel free to call on

groups, have a policy of randomly selecting a few

anyone—in particular, the quieter students.

groups—and within each group, randomly selecting

Watch for nonverbal cues of students’ readiness

the spokesperson—to summarize their progress or

to respond, especially changes in facial expression.

conclusions.

Still, refrain from calling on anyone until you see

Ending class with a wrap-up activity on a regu-

several raised hands or eager faces. When you have

lar basis can also keep students alert during the whole many possible students from whom to select, you can

period. For example, randomly pick a student to sum-

spread the attention and participation opportunities

marize the discussion at the end of class, then in-

across students who haven’t spoken recently.

vite others to add major points. Or conclude class

with a classroom assessment technique (see Chapter

Twenty-Eight), such as a one-minute paper in which

Breaking the Class into Small Groups

students write down the most important thing they

A time-saving way to guarantee a broad response to

learned that day and any remaining questions or still-a question, especially in larger classes, is to break the confusing point.

students into small groups. If you intend to do so only on occasion or as a brief warm-up to a general discussion, you may simply have students cluster themselves Waiting for Responses to

into informal, ad hoc “buzz groups” based on seat-

Increase Participation

ing proximity. If you are setting up long-term formal To eliminate needless delays in students’ responding, groups to collaborate on a sizable project outside class ask only one question at a time. Resist the temptation (see Chapter Sixteen), you may have students get into to pose another related question if you don’t get an

these groups. Either way, not only will the groups

instant response to the first. Putting multiple questions generate higher-quality answers than will most indion the table confuses students.

viduals on their own, but they will give the shyer and

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

more reserved students a safer venue in which to de-

•

When the answer is correct but only one of several velop their ideas and points of view.

correct possibilities, ask another student to extend or add to it. Or frame a question that is an extension

Encouraging Nonparticipants

of the answer. Avoid premature closure.

I have already mentioned several ways to broaden par-

•

When the answer is incomplete, follow up with ticipation: letting students jot down their answer, ex-a question that directs the student to include

tending your wait time, and breaking the class into

more—for example, “How might you mod-

groups to develop responses. You can also monitor

ify your answer if you took into account the

participation and actively encourage it where it’s lack-aspect?”

ing. If one side of the room seems too quiet, make a

•

When the answer is unclear, try to rephrase it; then point of saying so, and start directing questions ex-ask the student if this is what she means.

clusively to those in that area. If an individual is not

•

When the answer is seemingly wrong, follow up contributing, use the same tactic, but be extra gen-with one or more gently delivered Socratic

tle; you want to avoid putting that person too much

questions designed to lead the student to discover

on the spot. Another strategy with a quiet student is his error—for example: “Yes, but if you come to

to ask her to read a passage of text, a question, or a that conclusion, don’t you also have to assume

problem aloud. This technique is particularly effective

?” (See the section on the Socratic

with a passage from a narrative, a play, a poem, or a method in Chapter Fourteen.)

treatise, and you can follow up by asking the student

•

When the answer is incomplete, unclear, or seem-

to interpret or comment on the reading.

ingly wrong, invite the student to explain, clarify, or Persistent nonparticipation may be a symptom

elaborate on it. Or ask other students to comment

of a deeper problem that calls for a private approach.

on or evaluate it. Vary your response to faulty

It is a good idea to have the student see you in your answers so students simply don’t translate a stock

office and tactfully ask why he has been so quiet in

phrase as, “You’re wrong.” Avoid identifying and

class. Accept any answer as legitimate, and then en-

correcting errors yourself for as long as possible.

courage him to become involved. One way to help

a student overcome fear is to give him one or more

discussion questions in advance of the next class and Directing Traffic

let him rehearse his answers with you.

As some of the response options suggest, you of-

ten best facilitate by doing and saying very little, act-Responding to Student Responses

ing only as the resource of last resort. You should step Give approval, verbal or nonverbal, to all student

in only if no student supplies the needed clarification, contributions, but with discretion and discrimination.

correction, or knowledge or if the discussion strays

Students want to know how correct and complete

off track. In fact, the successful facilitator’s primary their own and their classmates’ answers are, but they task is to direct traffic—that is, to signal students to want you to deliver your judgment in a diplomatic,

react to their peers’ contributions. When you do re-

encouraging way.

spond yourself, try to do it in the form of a thoughtful Approval can take the form of a nod, an in-follow-up question. In addition, whenever you can,

terested or accepting facial expression, your recording refer back to the student’s earlier remarks, using the the response on the board, or appropriate verbal feed-contributor’s name.

back. Here are some verbal response options you may

Your goal is to shift the spotlight from you to

wish to use:

your students every chance you get. In addition to

inviting students to comment on and extend each

•

When the answer is correct, praise according to what other’s answers, ask them to address their comments

it deserves.

to the classmate to whom they are responding by

Leading Effective Discussions

135

looking at that person and addressing her by name.

Watch the clock and reserve a few minutes

For the first few weeks, name tags or tents may be

at the end of class to wrap up and summarize the

essential. If the class is splitting into camps on an is-discussion. Some sort of review encourages students

sue, set up a spontaneous debate, allowing students to to check their notes and fill in important omissions.

change their mind in the course of the exchange. For

It also keeps them on common ground. See the

a twist, have each side argue in favor of the opposi-

“Motivating Attention” section above for several

tion. Also bring students center stage when you sense fruitful ways to end a discussion session.

that you are not effectively explaining a point or an-Discussion appeals most strongly to the auditory

swering a question. Ask them to help you out and

learning style (see Chapter Twenty-Five), and any

offer their version; they speak one another’s language.

one method can get monotonous after a while.

What if traffic comes to a screeching halt? If no

So consider varying your participatory strategies to

one says a word after a generous wait time, you might better serve other learning styles, as well as to add break the silence and tension with a touch of humor:

spice to life. The many student-active, experiential,

“Helloooooo, is anybody out there?” But you should

and cooperative-learning techniques described in

definitely find out the reason for the silence. Perhaps Chapters Fifteen and Sixteen offer stimulating

your question was ambiguous, or your students did

alternatives to the all-class discussion. These include not understand the way you phrased it, or they mis-brainstorming, debate, change-your-mind debate,

understood your meaning. For your own benefit, ask

the press conference, the symposium, the panel

them to identify the bottleneck.

discussion, role playing, simulations, field and

service work, and a wide variety of small-group

Wrapping Up

activities.

Of course, engaging questions and sound ques-

Before moving the discussion onto the next topic, be

tioning techniques can keep the discussion method

sure the current one is settled. You might ask if any-lively and challenging for weeks on end. They can

one has something to add or qualify. If no one does,

also inform your quizzes and exams so you can better

ask a student to summarize the main points made

assess the level of thinking you’re trying to foster. So during the discussion of the topic. Then move on,

let us turn now to crafting questions.

making a logical transition to the next topic.

C H A P T E R 14

Questioning Techniques for Discussion

and Assessment

Framingquestionsisakeyteachingskillandhas The college teaching literature offers several been for millennia. Socrates honed it to such

schemas for organizing and categorizing questions,

a fine art that an entire method of questioning

and the most prominent ones are summarized here.

is attributed to him. Sound questioning techniques

They fall into two categories: those that guide

enhance instruction in several ways:

students through a more or less orderly process of

inquiry and those that classify questions into more or

•

Questions launch and carry discussion, one of the

less useful types. This chapter couches questioning in oldest and most commonly used student-active

the contexts of discussion, but later chapters return teaching techniques (see Chapter Thirteen).

to using questions for assessment.

•

They promote practice in using disciplinary lan-

guage, principles, algorithms, and conventions.

QUESTIONING AS A PROCESS

•

They stimulate the exploratory, critical thinking,

OF INQUIRY

and insight in which inquiry-based methods, in-

cluding Socratic questioning, are grounded (see

Chapter Eighteen).

The most engaging discussions are not just a list of

•

When used for classroom assessment, questions

loosely connected questions. Rather, they comprise a

yield answers that help us gauge what students

purposeful sequence of questions that leads students

are learning and whether to review a topic or

through a process of thinking about a topic more and

proceed to the next (see Chapter Twenty-Eight).

more deeply.

•

Questions are the major means by which we

grade students’ performance; the more closely

Using the Socratic Method

our questions reflect our learning outcomes, the

The Socratic method is the most spontaneous ques-

fairer and more useful these grading procedures

tioning technique. You may begin with one planned

are (see Chapter Twenty-Nine).

question to open the dialogue on a given topic, but

137

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

you frame your succeeding questions according to the

the end of class. For each performance, create one or answers the students give. In response to your initial two key questions that will assess the students’ facility.

question, the student takes a position or point of view.

Then for each key question, develop another two or

Your next question raises a weakness of or excep-

three questions that logically proceed and will prepare tion to that position, to which the student responds

the students to answer the key questions intelligently.

with a defense or a qualification of her original posi-In other words, work backward from the key ques-

tion. The student may also assume a new position. In

tions you want your students to answer well at the

turn, you respond with another question that reveals

end through the questions that will lead them to that a possible weakness of or exception to the defense,

facility.

the qualified position, or the new position, and the

When class begins, launch the discussion with

student responds as before. This line of inquiry pro-

one of the last questions you framed. You can lend

motes in students rational thinking, persistence, and structure to the discussion by displaying all the

pattern recognition across seemingly disparate pro-

questions (key ones last) on the board, a slide, or an cesses and phenomena (Overholser, 1992). With ex-overhead or in a handout, preferably with note-taking perience, you should be able to anticipate the blind

space below each question. Still, unless you have

alleys and misdirections your students will take on

framed too many questions, you can afford to be

specific topics and develop a general discussion plan.

flexible. You can allow the discussion to wander a bit, This questioning technique is challenging.

then easily redirect it back to your list of questions.

Some instructors don’t feel comfortable with such

The next section on Bloom’s hierarchy of ques-

a spontaneous, unstructured format for an entire

tions suggests a logical sequencing scheme for the

discussion period. Some students don’t either; they

working-backward strategy.

have a hard enough time taking notes on the most

structured discussion. Unless the questions are posed Guiding Students up Bloom’s Hierarchy

in a light-hearted tone, students can feel as if they of Questions

are getting hammered and take offense. In addition,

questioning one student too long can make the

You can view Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of questions

rest of the class tune out. A good situation for the

as just types or as a hierarchical ladder of cognitive Socratic method is when you are facing a number of

levels for leading your students from knowledge, the

students who share the same position. You can then

lowest-thinking level, to evaluation, the highest. This direct each of your questions to a different student.

schema was set out in Chapter Two, where we ap-

Instructors who play devil’s advocate (see Chapter

plied it to developing learning outcomes. The lists of Thirteen) are usually practicing the Socratic method, verbs associated with each cognitive operation are just whether they know it or not (Gose, 2009).

as useful here for framing questions, so refer back to Table 2.1. Also refer to Table 14.1, which furnishes

examples of questions at each cognitive level.

Working Backward from

To structure a discussion as a process of inquiry,

End-of-Class Outcomes

you might start off with knowledge (recitation) ques-

A second strategy, one that has gained the status of

tions on the highlights of the previous class or the

a conventional wisdom, is to work backward from

reading assignment. A factual recall exercise serves as one’s ultimate learning outcomes for a particular class.

a mental warm-up for the students and gives those

It requires advance planning. First, jot down your ul-who come in unprepared the chance to pick up a

timate outcomes for the class period: the one, two,

few major points and follow along, if not participate or three things you want your students to be able

later. As you can see in Table 14.1, knowledge ques-

to do (classify, explain, analyze, assess, and so on) by tions often ask who, what, where, and when, as well

Questioning Techniques for Discussion and Assessment

139

Table 14.1

Examples of Questions at Each Cognitive Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy/Hierarchy Cognitive Level

Questions

Knowledge

•Who did

to

?

•What did you notice about

?

•What do you recall about

?

•What does the term

mean?

•When did

take place? Where did it take place?

•How does the process work? (Describe it.)

Comprehension

•In your own words, what does the term

mean?

•How would you explain

in nontechnical terms?

•Can you show us what you mean?

•What do think the author/researcher is saying?

Application

•What would be an example of

?

•How would you solve this problem?

•What approach would you use?

•How would you apply

in this situation?

Analysis

•How are

and

alike? How are they different?

•How is

related to

?

•What are the different parts of

?

•What type of

is this? How would you classify it?

•What evidence does the author/researcher offer?

•How does the author/researcher structure the argument?

•What assumptions are behind the argument?

•What inferences can you draw about

?

Synthesis

•What conclusions can you come to about

?

•What generalizations can you make about

?

•How would you design (structure, organize) a

?

•How would you adapt (change) the design (plan) for

?

•How can you resolve the differences (paradox, apparent conflict)?

•What new model could accommodate these disparate findings?

Evaluation

•What would you choose, and why?

•What are the relevant data, and why?

•Why do you approve or disapprove?

•Why do you think the conclusions are valid or invalid?

•What is your position (opinion), and how can you justify it?

•How would you rank (rate, prioritize) the

?

•How would you judge (evaluate)

?

as how and why when students have already read or

seeing them as apple polishers—“bailing you out,”

been told the correct answer. Avoid questions that

so to speak. Besides, we have more important critical call for one- or two-word answers, however; aim for

thinking skills to develop in our students.

multisentence responses. But do not spend more than

Therefore, rapidly move the discussion up the

several minutes on this level. The boredom potential

hierarchy through comprehension so you can find out aside, students will not answer many recitation

whether your students correctly understand the ma-

questions because they may fear their classmates

terial and can put it in their own words. Draw on

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

the questions in Table 14.1. At this juncture, you can students have previously received as “knowledge”

identify and correct any misconceptions they have

from you and the readings you assign.

about the subject matter that might get in the way

of their deeper learning. If they do comprehend the

material, they should be able to answer application TYPOLOGIES OF GOOD

questions and think of appropriate examples and use

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

the material to solve problems. If they can do this,

they should be ready to progress to analysis of the ma-There is much more to constructing discussion ques-

terial: distilling its elements; drawing comparisons and tions than turning around a couple of words in a

contrasts; identifying assumptions, evidence, causes, sentence and adding a question mark. Well-crafted

effects, and implications; and reasoning through ex-

ones take thought and creativity in order to evoke

planations and arguments.

the same from students. But they all have one fea-

Once students have found their way through the

ture in common: they have multiple respectable an-

material, they are prepared to step outside its confines swers. Therefore, they encourage broad participation

and attempt synthesis. As illustrated in Table 14.1, this and in-depth treatment. Often, too, multiple-answer

type of question calls for integrating elements of the questions spark debate. Welcome the conflict, and let material in new and creative ways: drawing new con-students argue it out. Before letting the issue rest, ask clusions and generalizations; composing or designing

for possible resolutions or analyses of the conflict if a new model, theory, or approach; or combining

they don’t evolve on their own.

elements from different sources. When students

To help you frame thought-provoking, open-

can synthesize material, they have mastered it well

ended discussion questions, several scholars have de-

enough to address evaluation questions. They now vised typologies of questions.

can make informed judgments about its strengths and

shortcomings, its costs and benefits, and its ethical, aesthetic, or practical merit.

McKeachie’s Categories

Structured as a hierarchy, Bloom’s taxonomy

McKeachie (2002) suggests four types of fruitful,

helps rein in students from leaping into issues they

challenging questions, which vaguely overlap with

aren’t yet prepared to tackle. Often students are

Bloom’s analysis, synthesis, and evaluation questions: all too eager to jump to judging material without

thoroughly understanding and examining it first. In

•

Comparative questions ask students to com-

addition, if you teach the taxonomy to your students, pare and contrast different theories, research studies, they acquire a whole new metacognitive perspective

literary works, and so on. Indirectly, they help

on thinking processes and levels. If you label the

students identify the important dimensions for

level of your questions, you maximize your chances

comparison.

of obtaining the level of answers you are seeking.

•

Evaluative questions extend comparisons to

Students also quickly learn to classify and better frame judgments of the relative validity, effectiveness, or their own questions.

strength of what is being compared.

The taxonomy should be used flexibly, how-

•

Connective and causal effect questions chal-

ever. Some discussion tasks, such as debriefing a case lenge students to link facts, concepts, relationships, (see Chapter Nineteen), may call for an inextricable

authors, theories, and so on that are not explicitly

combination of application, analysis, synthesis, and

integrated in assigned materials and might not appear evaluation. Moreover, a comprehension question

to be related. These questions are particularly useful in in one course may be an analysis task in another.

cross-disciplinary courses. They can also ask students How any question is classified depends on what the

to draw and reflect on their personal experiences,

Questioning Techniques for Discussion and Assessment

141

connecting these to theories and research findings.

the circumstances or parameters of a situation might

When students realize these links, the material be-

alter the results. They can induce imaginative think-

comes more meaningful to them.

ing and even send a discussion off on fanciful tangents,

•

Critical questions invite students to examine but students still have to use their prior knowledge

the validity of a particular argument, research claim, and experience to come up with supportable

or interpretation. Such questions foster careful, active extrapolations. Hypothetical questions can extend

reading. If the class has trouble getting started, you can cause-and-effect questions. If, for example, the class initiate the discussion by presenting an equally plau-established the impact of education on income, an

sible alternative argument. Asking for comments on

instructor could pose this hypothetical scenario to

what a student has just said is also a critical question.

help students define the limits of the relationship:

Used in this content, it fosters good listening skills.

What if everyone in the society got a bachelor’s

degree? Does that mean that everyone would make

Brookfield and Preskill’s ‘‘Momentum’’

the same income?

Questions

•

Open questions. These questions represent

the best kind of discussion questions: those with

Brookfield and Preskill (1999) propose seven types of multiple respectable answers. They invite risk taking questions that serve the express purpose of sustain-and creativity in problem solving and have the

ing the momentum of a discussion. These questions

greatest potential for expanding students’ intellectual are designed to make students probe into issues more

and affective horizons. No matter how they are

deeply, reconsider positions in novel and more critical phrased, they are truly open only if the instructor

ways, and stay intellectually stimulated:

welcomes all well-meaning responses and isn’t fishing for a preferred answer. She can accept the weaker

•

Questions requesting more evidence. As the

contributions as opportunities for the students to built name states, such a question asks a student to defend and expand on them and follow up with clarification

his position, especially when it comes out of nowhere questions, requests for more evidence, cause-andor another student challenges it as unsupported. The

effect questions, and hypothetical questions.

instructor should pose the question in a matter-of-fact way as a simple request for more information—data,

•

Linking or extension questions. A high-quality facts, passages from the text—so as not to alienate the discussion depends on students’ actively listening to student.

each other’s contributions. Linking or extension ques-

•

Clarification questions. This type of question tions encourage this by asking students to think about invites the student to rephrase or elaborate on her

the relationships between their responses and those

ideas to make them more understandable to the rest

of their classmates. Often students are building on or of the class. It may include a request for an example, bouncing off the previous comments of others, and an

an application, or a fuller explanation.

instructor can ask questions that help them see and ac-

•

Cause-and-effect questions. These questions

knowledge the connections. These questions require

make students consider the possible causal relationship using students’ names. Ideally, they can set off en-between variables or events and, in effect, formulate gaging conversations among classmates that don’t go

hypotheses. Instructors can use them to challenge

through the instructor. They can also launch a col-

a conventional wisdom or introduce the scientific

laborative discussion in which students must refer to method.

the previous comments of their classmates when mak-

•

Hypothetical questions. These are “what-if”

ing their own contributions. The resulting discussion inquiries that require students to think creatively, to is a community product of everyone’s ideas cooper-make up plausible scenarios, to explore how changing

atively woven together. Not only does this exercise

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

give students practice in careful listening and collabo-grouping, and prioritizing, using criteria they generrative thinking, but it can also serve as the model of ate themselves.

the kind of community-based discussion an instructor

•

Focal questions elicit an even higher 4.9 re-may want.

sponses per question. They ask students to choose a

•

Summary and synthesis questions. To enhance

viewpoint or position from several possible ones and

the learning value of discussion, an instructor should support their choice with reasoning and evidence.

end with a few wrap-up questions that ask students to Students may develop and defend their own opin-summarize or synthesize the important ideas shared

ions, adopt those of a particular author, or assume a during the exchange. Students have to review and

devil’s advocate stance—for example: “Do you think

reflect on the discussion, identifying and articulating that Marx’s theory of capitalism is still relevant in to-the intellectual highlights. These questions can take day’s postindustrial societies? Why or why not?” “To

a variety of forms. They can ask outright for the

what extent is Ivan Illich a victim of his own de-

one or two most important ideas that emerged or for

cisions or of society?” “Is the society in Brave New some key concept that best encapsulates the exchange.

World a utopia, a nightmare of moral degeneration, They can ask what points the discussion clarified,

something between the two?” A variation on a focal

what issues remain unresolved, or what topics should

question is for you to play devil’s advocate on an issue be addressed next time to advance the group’s under-or to make a contentious, controversial statement and standing.

invite your students to react against it. But as recommended in Chapter Thirteen, be sure to let your class know exactly what you are doing.

Gale and Andrews’s ‘‘High-Mileage’’

•

Playground questions hold the mileage record, Types

with an average of 5.1 responses per question. They

Gale and Andrews (1989) developed categories of

challenge students to select or develop their own

questions from classroom observations of discussions

themes and concepts for exploring, interpreting, and

and tallied the average number of responses each

analyzing a piece of material—for example, “What

type evoked. They called this average the “mileage”

do you think the author is saying in this particular

of each type. Using their results, we can ensure our

passage?” “What underlying assumptions about

discussions are lively. Here are the top mileage types, human nature must this theorist have?” “What might

all of which can be pitched at high cognitive levels: happen if [present a counterfactual]?” When posing

such open-ended questions, however, be aware that

•

Brainstorming questions, found to yield 4.3

this type of question can veer the discussion into

student responses per question, invite students to gen-other topics.

erate many conceivable ideas on a topic or many pos-

sible solutions to a problem—for example: “What is-

sues does Hamlet question in the play?” “What trends

starting in the 1960s may have had a negative im-

POOR QUESTIONS FOR

pact on American public education?” “How might

DISCUSSION PURPOSES

the public be convinced to care about ecological im-

balances?” At the start of a brainstorming session, the It is difficult to fully appreciate highly effective dis-instructor tells the class to withhold judgment and

cussion questions without examining the less effective criticism for the time being and records all the re-types as well. Gale and Andrews’s categories and the

sponses on the board, an overhead, a slide, or a flip classroom research they conducted on discussions

chart. Only after all brains stop storming do the stu-provide valuable insight and information on this

dents begin editing, refining, combining, eliminating, latter kind too (Gale & Andrews, 1989). Some of

Questioning Techniques for Discussion and Assessment

143

these questions have their place, but they tend not

questions?” You may occasionally get an honest

to encourage broad participation or higher-order

response, but all too often you find out later that

thinking.

not everyone understood and quite a few students

must have had questions. It is usually better to

Questions Good for Recitation

use classroom assessment techniques (see Chapter

Twenty-Nine) to answer such concerns.

Some types of questions may flop for discussion but

•

Chameleon and shotgun questions are both a serve the purposes of recitation—that is, knowledge

series of weakly related questions fired off one after recall and review—quite well:

the other in hopes that one will hit with the stu-

dents. Chameleons change their topical focus through

•

Analytical convergent questions may elicit com-the series until the last one barely resembles the first, plex thought, but they have only one correct answer.

leaving students not knowing which one to try to an-

So they make students edgy and cut the discussion

swer. Shotgun questions may all go off in the same

short as soon as someone gives the right or com-

general direction, but they make the instructor look

plete answer. It makes sense that they evoke only 2.0

like a “bad shot”—either desperate for a response or

answers per question. Typically 1.0 of the attempts

confused about the issues. Students become confused

isn’t exactly right or complete. Analytical convergent and disoriented in the murk of the inquisition, not

questions are best used sparingly as knowledge and

knowing which in the series to dodge and which to

comprehension warm-ups to get students talking.

address. The average series yields only 2.3 responses.

•

Quiz show questions have a short correct

•

Programmed-answer

questions sound like

answer, such as a person, a place, a date, or a title.

open-ended questions on the surface, and indeed

They elicit only factual recall and serve poorly as

they have more than one appropriate answer. But

warm-up questions for genuine discussion. Their

between the lines, the instructor conveys, perhaps

average mileage is 1.5 responses per question,

unconsciously, having only one specific answer in

suggesting that the first “contestant” guesses wrong

mind. Students regard this type of question as an

about half the time. Still many a delightful review

unwelcomed challenge to read the instructor’s mind.

session has imitated a quiz show game format, such

Some even consider it manipulative.

as Jeopardy or Millionaire, using exactly this kind of

•

Put-down and ego-stroking questions are two question (Kaupins, 2005).

sides of the same bad attitude. The former type of

question implies that students ought to know the

Questions Good for Nothing

answer or shouldn’t have any more questions—for

Some types of questions serve no purpose well and

example, “Now that I have explained this topic

can confuse and alienate students. These should be

thoroughly, are there any more questions?” The latter avoided:

type assumes the superiority of the instructor to the discouragement of the students. An implicit request

•

Fuzzy questions are too vague and unfocused

to “rephrase the answer the way I would say it”

for students to know how to approach them. They

douses students’ creativity, self-expression, and often may be phrased unclearly, such as, “Who else knows

their motivation to answer at all.

what else doesn’t fall into this category?” Or they

•

Dead-end questions are quiz show questions

may be too global, like, “What about the breakdown

with a yes or no answer. Students simply place their

of the family?” Students resist taking the risk required bets. But these questions can easily be transformed

to attack such grand questions. Other common

into useful types in one of two ways. First, you can

fuzzy questions represent well-meaning attempts to

often change them into true-false items, having stu-

help: “Does everyone understand this?” and “Any

dents rephrase false statements to make them true.

144

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Better yet, you can rephrase them by beginning the

your favorite questioning schema, you can have your

sentence with a why or a how. With thought now

students develop discussion and even test questions as required, students are more likely to participate.

homework assignments. You can use the best ones in

class and in actual tests and even grade them if you

choose. The quality of these questions also tells you TURNING THE TABLES

how diligently your students are doing their reading

(see Chapter Twenty-Three).

The person posing the discussion questions need not

The next chapter offers other teaching formats

always be the instructor. If you model good ques-

that put the spotlight and the responsibility for learn-tioning techniques and spend a little time teaching

ing on students.

C H A P T E R 15

Experiential Learning Activities

This chapter covers a potpourri of teaching Two, and especially Eleven). We start here with methods and moves that allow students to

the moderately engaging and move to the more

discover and construct knowledge by direct

powerful.

experience, either simulated or real. These activities rank even higher than discussion on a continuum of

student engagement, ranging from moderately en-

STUDENT PRESENTATION

gaging to extremely so, and the intense emotions they FORMATS

often evoke cement the experiences into students’

memories. Furthermore, they strongly appeal to the

Employers place a high priority on communication

accommodator, diverger, and kinesthetic learning

skills, and many started complaining some years ago

styles (Fleming & Mills, 1992; Kolb, 1984; see

that their new college-graduate employees were wan-

Chapter Twenty-Five). Research documents that

ting in these skills. In response, many institutions

experiential learning methods, such as simulations,

initiated communication-across-the-curriculum pro-

games, and role playing, ensure higher student mo-

grams, emphasizing not only writing but speaking

tivation, more learning at higher cognitive levels,

as well. As a result, oral presentations have become

greater appreciation of the subject matter and its

common course components. Formal oral presen-

utility, and longer retention of the material than

tations are not in themselves experiential, except to does the traditional lecture (Berry, 2008; Bonwell & the extent that students learn all the preparation,

Eison, 1991; Hertel & Millis, 2002; Howard, Collins, platform skills, and rehearsal that go into a good pre-

& DiCarlo, 2002; Specht & Sandlin, 1991). These sentation. However, oral communication takes many

methods also meet a wider range of instructional

forms, and the activities described in this section

goals than do less active ones (see Chapters One,

give students public speaking opportunities within

145

146

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

experiential learning contexts. As such, they add

Yet another variant is called structured controversy reality and pizzazz to student presentations.

or academic controversy, in which two pairs in a group In most cases, you assign or your students se-of four students formally debate each other on an is-

lect the topic, research area, role, position, or school sue, then switch sides, and finally synthesize a joint of thought that they will represent, but in a few cases position (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991). Done

students play themselves. Often they conduct research properly, this activity requires that students conduct and write a paper outside class. However, you can set considerable outside research and write a final report.

up some of these activities spontaneously in a well-

prepared class. Before you turn students loose to in-

Expert Individuals or Teams

vestigate, represent, and question different sides of a Designate individual students, pairs, or triads to be controversy, be sure they understand rhetorical struc-the class experts on a certain topic, geographical area, ture, the basic rules of evidence, and logical fallacies.

body of theory or research, or something else.

Following your reference leads, students do outside

Variations on Debate

readings and turn in weekly, annotated bibliographies Every field has topics amenable to a two-sided (at

on their area of expertise. Then you regularly query

least) fact-based argument. A debate format need not

the “experts” in class, asking for informational up-

be any more complex than statements of the affirma-

dates or about the relevance of their area to the day’s tive and the negative, plus rebuttals, each with a strict discussion.

time limit. It is best to assign sides to pairs or triads Dunn (1992) applied this format very effectively

so students have the chance to consider and discuss

in his World Affairs course, where he paired off stu-

points of view other than their own.

dents as “briefing teams” charged with keeping up

A variation on debate that involves the entire

on the current affairs of nine world regions. On some class is a change-your-mind debate. You designate dif-days he played the role of a political leader depen-

dent on his students’ briefings, especially to lighten ferent sides of the classroom as “for the affirmative”

the mood when he felt the need to cajole his class

or “for the negative,” with the middle as “uncer-

into working harder.

tain/undecided/neutral.” Before the debate, students

sit in the area representing their current position and can change their seating location during the debate as Panel Discussion

their opinions sway. After the debate, lead a debriefing Four or five students briefly present different points of discussion focusing on the opinion changers (“What

view on a topic, either their own position or one they changed your mind?”) and the undecided students,

are representing. Panel members can play themselves

who are likely to provide the most objective analysis or different noted scholars and historical figures—for of both the debate and the issue at hand.

example: Freud, Jung, Adler, Skinner, and Rogers

A second variant for a whole-class activity is

in a psychology course; Benjamin Franklin, Thomas

point-counterpoint (Silberman, 1996). Divide your class Jefferson, Aaron Burr, James Madison, and George

into groups—as many groups as there are positions on

Washington in an early American history course.

an issue—and tell each group to come up with ar-

Then the class addresses thoughtful questions and

guments in favor of its assigned position. Select one challenges, preferably prepared in advance, to the

student to launch the debate by presenting one argu-

various panel members.

ment for his group’s stance; then call on each group

You can also make the entire class into a panel

in turn to give a different argument or counterargu-

by calling a town meeting on a multisided issue or

ment. Conclude with a class discussion comparing the

complex case (Silberman, 1996). After doing some

various positions.

outside research on the issue or situation, students

Experiential Learning Activities

147

prepare to voice their views within a time limit you

and offers constructive criticism, which is especially set, following the format that each speaker calls on the useful if students can revise their work. In addition, next speaker.

for each class period, you may assign one or two

discussants to interrelate and critique the papers. Dis-Press Conference

cussants should have at least a day or two to review

the symposium products in advance.

You or a student assumes the focal role, posing as a

noted scholar, a leader in some realm, or a represen-

tative of a particular position or school of thought, ROLE PLAYING

while the rest of the class plays investigative reporters, each student or small group with an assigned audience or readership, such as local residents, residents You assign students roles in a true-to-life, problematic of another area or country, a special interest group, social or interpersonal situation that they act out, im-a specific company, or some public agency. These

provising the script. When one player is not supposed

“reporter” students ask probing, challenging ques-

to know the full story about another player’s inten-

tions of the focal person.

tions, problem, or goals, you should provide written

Two planning caveats are in order. First, the focal

descriptions for each role. You also must decide what information to give to the rest of the class. Following role should represent a broad-ranging, controversial

the enactment is a debriefing discussion. It should ad-decision or stance. Defining such a role is easy in po-dress how the players felt in their role at crucial junc-litical science or history, but in other fields, it requires tures, what intentions and interests motivated their

more creative thought. In psychology or sociology,

actions, what behavioral patterns the rest of the class for example, the focal role may be a criminologist

observed, and how these behaviors reflected concepts

or criminal psychologist whose testimony leads to

and principles addressed in the course.

the probation of a violent convict. In economics, the While role playing relies on make-believe sce-focal role may advocate an uncertain or risky inter-

narios in the classroom, students learn experientially vention strategy. In the sciences and medical fields, it by identifying with the roles they play and observe.

may stand for a controversial environmental or public You may also play a role, especially when you want

health position—perhaps on global warming, en-

to model certain behaviors (how to conduct a family

dangered species preservation, genetically engineered therapy session, negotiate a contract, mediate conflict, produce, prescription drug restrictions, human clon-or open a formal meeting, for example).

ing, or the like. Second, in addition to assigning

This technique is used successfully in both the-

audiences or readerships to the students playing

rapy and instruction, especially in the humanities,

reporters, you can require them to research and write social sciences, counseling, clinical psychology, and out their questions and challenges in advance. Having nursing. In political science or history, students can them then write a mock article incorporating the

take the identity of key leaders or decision makers in press conference is an optional follow-up assignment.

a conflict or the role of collective constituencies that You need not confine the activity to one fo-face an important task—for instance, landed elites,

cal person. You can have a succession of them with

Tory loyalists, Continental Army soldiers and militia, different viewpoints and perspectives.

tradesmen, yeoman farmers, ministers, and lawyers,

all responsible for drafting their positions for a state Symposium

constitutional convention (Frederick, 1991). In

Individual students or teams present their indepen-

almost any discipline or profession, you can provoke

dently conducted research papers that express their

discussion by having groups of students enact the

own ideas. The rest of the class asks probing questions violation of an ethical norm. Kraus (2008) had her

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

research methods students role-play violations of the SIMULATIONS AND GAMES

American Sociological Association Code of Ethics,

and they found the activity very valuable.

What simulations and games share is the prospect of

In structuring an original role play, the only rule

winning something desirable, whether that be money,

is to incorporate conflict between the roles and some power, territory, profits, being correct, getting one’s need for the players to reach a resolution (Halpern

way, extra credit, candy, or simply a sense of satisfac-

& Associates, 1994). Here are some applications to tion. But the biggest win is in learning. Simulations inspire your own ideas:

and games can bring the course material to life and

emotionally engage an entire class as few other meth-

•

Professional (doctor, lawyer, or pastor, for exam-

ods can.

ple) and client disagree over an approach to the

client’s problem.

Academic Games

•

Executive promises union negotiator (or up-start

worker) a major promotion for keeping quiet

Many academic games are modeled on traditional

about an impending plant closing, a behind-the-

games, such as Bingo and Go Fish, and classic tele-

scenes corporate takeover, future layoffs, or

vision game shows, such as Jeopardy, Family Feud, planned benefit cuts.

Wheel of Fortune, Password, and Who Wants to Be a

•

Worker representatives try to convince executives

Millionaire? Recently some faculty have adapted Sur-not to close an unprofitable plant.

vivor to subjects as disparate as physiology (Howard

•

Human resource executive must make a tough

et al., 2002) and music theory (Berry, 2008). The

hiring decision among various male, female, mi-

questions and answers come from the course material

nority, and nonminority candidates with different

and can easily capture knowledge, comprehension,

job qualifications and personalities.

and application levels of thinking, if not higher.

•

Politician experiences role conflict between parti-

Games provide an effective and painless, even fun,

san and administrative roles or between ideological

review format (Kaupins, 2005; Moy, Rodenbaugh,

stance and the need for campaign funds.

Collins, & DiCarlo, 2000), and in this context,

•

Couple

or

family

argues

over

money,

students can sometimes submit the questions and

(un)employment, discipline of the children,

even run the game.

authority, autonomy, communication, moving,

Games can also supply a format for almost every

in-laws, domestic violence, or alcohol or drug

class period. After opening her music theory classes

use. This scenario may include a social worker’s,

with a minilecture, Berry (2008) assigns “tribes”

physician’s, minister’s, law enforcer’s, lawyer’s, or of students their “challenge” for that day, such

therapist’s role.

as a timed workbook exercise on the minilecture

topic. The tribe members correct their work and

If you teach a foreign language, feel free to make

tally their individual and tribal scores with the goal a role play of any situation your students may en-to get the highest possible. Personal pride and

counter while traveling. While they may not learn

peer pressure motivate individual achievement, even

much through empathy, they will get useful, conver-

though the tribes don’t vote off the lowest-scoring

sational practice in the target language. If you teach member.

literature, consider casting students in the roles of the Millis (in press) is the definitive contemporary

characters and letting them play out a hypothetical

book on academic games. It gives detailed directions

scene that extends the piece of literature. In other

on when and how to bring a wide variety of games

fields, search out case studies that you can adapt to (not all based on television game or reality shows) into role playing.

the classroom.

Experiential Learning Activities

149

Simulations

a review board, a legislature, or an administrative

agency (Hertel & Millis, 2002).

By abstracting key elements from reality (Mitchell,

In addition to the hundreds of tried-and-true

1982), simulations allow students to live out the

face-to-face

simulations,

computer

technology

hypotheses and implications of theories, giving

ushered in an expanded selection of new prod-

them intense emotional, cognitive, and behavioral

ucts available either on the Web or in software

experiences that they will otherwise never have. This packages. They range from individual tutorial pro-method developed a strong faculty and student fol-

grams (computer-assisted instruction) to full-blown

lowing during the 1970s and the early 1980s around

multimedia simulations. Animated and interactive

a growing market of simulations of societies, formal

computer technology opened up elaborate simula-

organizations, corporations, markets, urban areas,

tions for the sciences and engineering. Among these

cultures, world politics, and other complex, macro

are hundreds of virtual laboratories allowing students social realms. These were strictly face-to-face enact-to conduct experiments and manipulate parameters

ments of hypothetical social situations, unmediated

in ways that would be too dangerous or too costly in

by computers, some requiring many hours and

real life. In hydraulics, for instance, students can solve an array of supporting materials. Many of them

complex canalization problems by varying the de-

resembled role plays involving the entire class. Some livery, inflow, outflow, and power of various pumps.

of the early simulations that have endured are Barnga In electrical engineering, they can manipulate the

and Bafa Bafa, both of which sensitize students to

performance of an electrical network and study over-

cultural differences and clashes.

loading, breaks, and the like. In the health sciences, Among these early simulations was a variant

faculty can program SimMan and other medical

called a frame simulation, which offers the instructor software to simulate specific diagnostic situations. To different scenarios or settings to choose from or to

obtain data for diagnosing the symptoms, students

develop on her own. These still serve an important

can even ask questions of the hypothetical patient and instructional purpose, though some have moved onto

get answers, as well as run hypothetical tests. Biology interactive computer sites. For example, students

and environmental sciences have numerous simula-

can play the Prisoner’s Dilemma under various

tions, including Unnatural Selection, SimIlse, and

conditions and payoff rules that illustrate different SimWorld, all which realistically mix politics into the psychological and sociological principles (Hyman,

controversial decision-making processes. In addition, 1978, 1981). Another frame simulation, structured

many of the original face-to-face simulations in the

like a mock trial, comes with a suite of genuine

social sciences offer computer versions.

cases spanning a host of disciplines: environmental

The field of business may have the most simula-

protection, industrial safety, medical technology,

tions, and they tend to be marketed under straight-

religious practices, securities markets, affirmative

forward titles such as Airline, Corporation, Supply

action, community development, and individual

Chain, Manager, Marketer, Human Resource Man-

rights (Karraker, 1993). For criminal cases, Silberman agement, Collective Bargaining Simulated, and En-

(1996) invites instructors to create an indictment

trepreneur. BusSim has developed a simulation for just around different sides of an issue and to set up a

about every business specialty.

trial by jury simulation with the full complement

Simulations are not just for young students.

of courtroom roles: judge, prosecuting attorney,

They are mainstays of adult education and job train-

defendant, defense attorney, prosecution and defense

ing. The military runs battle simulations, hospitals

witnesses, jury members, and friends of the court.

and emergency response agencies hold disaster pre-

In fact, frame simulations can revolve around any

paredness simulations, and even high-level university decision-making body: a court, a board of directors,

administration has UNIGAME and Virtual U.

150

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Finding Simulations

of students you want to involve. First, look for the

Review your learning outcomes and decide what

real-life or realistic scenarios to structure your simula-kind of simulation would truly help your students

tion around. Good sources are case studies, textbooks, achieve them. Then start looking. You can obtain a

journals, magazines, newspapers, and your personal

simulation in one of three ways: (1) buy one from

experience. Next, develop your characters and the

a commercial distributor (often a publishing house),

interests they will pursue, ensuring conflict or com-

which can cost up to a few hundred dollars; (2) find

petition among your primary roles. Then fill out the

one free in a journal (see below) or at a teaching

situation with secondary and supporting roles, which

conference, in which case you may have to make or

the primary characters may use to further their inter-buy any needed materials on your own; or (3) design

ests. Be sure that none of the acting roles know too

your own.

much. They have to be challenged and allowed to

If you choose the first option, check the web-

make bad decisions, even to fail. Finally, select the sites of publishers that produce good textbooks or

geographical setting, write the necessary documents,

teaching journals in your field. Of course, ask your

and develop the instructions, action constraints, and colleagues as well.

procedural rules (Hertel & Millis).

If you choose the second option, start with

your own field’s teaching journals and the following

Running Simulations

publications:

A simulation and its debriefing take a good deal of

class time—at least an hour for the very simplest. In

•

Decision Sciences: Journal of Innovative Education addition, to grab your students’ full attention, you

published by the Decision Sciences Institute (eco-

should assess them on their performance, with an

nomics and business disciplines). Available free

emphasis on the quality of their strategy, not their oronline at www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal

atory. To ensure students get maximum mileage out

/118499600/home.

of the experience, piggyback other assignments onto

•

The International Simulation and Gaming Research

it, such as readings, outside research (before or dur-Yearbook published by the Society for Academic ing the simulation), an oral presentation, a response Gaming and Simulation in Education and Train-paper, or a position paper. Some of these assignments ing as the proceedings of the society’s annual

can be graded. To help students gain the most from

conference.

their experience, require at least some kind of written

•

Simages, the online newsletter of the North

reflection.

American Simulation and Gaming Associa-

Here is the conventional wisdom for running

tion, which hosts an annual cross-disciplinary

simulations. First and foremost, be prepared. Read

conference.

the instructor’s manual or directions at least twice at a

•

Simulation and Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal leisurely pace well in advance. Mark what directions

of Theory, Practice and Research, published by an in-you will give the students at each stage of the simula-ternational consortium of professional associations,

tion. In general, it’s best not to give all the instructions including the Association for Business Simulation

at the beginning, because too much information will

and Experiential Learning, which also publishes

confuse the students. Rather, parcel them out. List

the proceedings of its annual conference.

your preclass setup tasks. Know the sequence of events and the schedule of distributing artifacts and materi-If you choose the third option, to design your

als, but don’t hesitate to refer to the manual during own simulation, follow Hertel and Millis’s (2002) ad-the simulation.

vice, keeping in mind your learning outcomes, the

Be aware that most facilitators run simulations

number of hours you have available, and the number

at too slow a pace. The challenge is to keep the

Experiential Learning Activities

151

game moving, even if the tempo puts pressure on the

reflection will give students the time and emotional

students. They need a long enough time to realize

distance from the experiences to glean additional in-

the constraints, costs, and benefits of their decision-sights from it.

making options, but not necessarily long enough

to answer every question that arises, come to a full

consensus, or feel completely comfortable with their

SERVICE-LEARNING:

decisions. After all, a simulation must imitate life

THE REAL THING

as much as possible. (For more detailed advice, see

Hertel & Millis, 2002.)

Service-learning is a method by which students

acquire various skills and knowledge while working

Debriefing Simulations

in community service. The current generation of col-

The debriefing process is an essential component of a lege students is distinguished by its volunteerism and simulation. It disengages students from the emotional service orientation, which may explain this method’s

aspects of the experience and settles them back into

popularity with younger students. Most faculty also

the classroom reality, and it allows them to transform find it effective in meeting certain course objectives.

what they experienced into meaningful learning.

According to instructors and “graduates,” service-

They should be able to identify the disciplinary con-

learning is almost uniformly a positive, life-changing cepts and principles illustrated in the simulation and experience for students—the kind they never forget.

assess their own decision-making abilities. In addition, It imparts new knowledge not just in the abstract but a debriefing brings out the disparate perceptions,

in a concrete, real-world context. The experience

feelings, and experiences each player had (Hertel & also stimulates emotions, which strongly enhance

Millis, 2002).

learning and retention (see Chapter One) and help

So important is the debriefing that you should

students progress toward certain affective, social, and prepare the discussion questions in advance. They

ethical learning outcomes (see Chapter Two), as well

should progress through three phases (Hertel &

almost every higher-order cognitive outcome (see

Millis, 2002). First, ask students to recount their ex-Chapter Eleven).

perience and their feelings about it. A successful

Service-learning is classic learning by doing, and

simulation may evoke some pretty strong emotions,

nothing teaches experientially like direct experience.

both negative and positive. Second, have them

If you want students to understand the characters in a explain their actions within the context of their

piece of modern literature, let them talk with the huroles, specifically their intentions and motivations

man counterparts. If you want them to comprehend

behind their decisions. If different roles had different the dynamics of poverty, let them work with the poor

information, students can reveal what they knew

and the homeless. If you want them to appreciate the

and didn’t know, what their goals were, and what

problems and crises of other countries, let them help strategy they had for attaining them. Finally, return the émigrés and refugees. If you want them to under-students to their true role as learners with questions stand prisoners, children, or any other group, let them that address the connection between their simulated

spend productive time with some of these people.

experiences and the concepts, principles, theories,

Let’s examine the accumulated research on the

and hypotheses they have studied in your course.

effects of service-learning (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, Help them translate the concrete into the abstract and

& Yee, 2000; Eyler & Giles, 1999). The method has derive generalizations related to the subject matter.

been found to enhance the following:

Hertel and Millis provide a series of debriefing

questions suitable for almost any simulation. As

•

Students’ personal development (sense of identity

recommended above, assigning a follow-up written

and efficacy, spiritual and moral growth)

152

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Students’ social and interpersonal development

influences are under the instructor’s control: how

(leadership, communication, ability to work with

much students can share and discuss their experiences others)

in class; how much training they have for the ex-

•

Students’ cultural and racial understanding

perience; how many hours per week they perform

•

Students’ sense of civic responsibility, citizenship

service; how well tied the experience is to the course skills, and societal effectiveness

content; and how much written and oral reflection

•

Students’ commitment to service in their career

students are asked to do, especially in tying the ex-

choice and future voluntary activities

perience back to the course content (Astin et al.,

•

In many studies, students’ academic learning and

2000; Gray et al., 1999, 2000; Zlotkowski, 1998).

abilities on some dimensions: writing skills, ability to apply knowledge to the real world, complexity

Implementing Service-Learning

of understanding, problem analysis, critical think-

ing, and cognitive development (no clear effect on

Is service-learning right for your courses? First, exa-grades, grade point average, or later standardized

mine your learning outcomes. Service-learning is

test scores)

worth considering if you have outcomes that are

•

Students’ relationships with faculty

affective, ethical, or social beyond working effectively

•

Students’ satisfaction with college and likelihood

in a group, or if your cognitive outcomes are served

of graduation

by students’ practicing on an outside clientele. If

•

Relations between the institution and the com-

either of these is true, try to identify community

munity.

needs that truly complement your subject matter. For

example, if you teach children’s literature and want

Another national study (Gray, Ondaatje, Fricker,

your students to be able to critique works from a

& Geschwind, 2000; Gray, Ondaatje, & Zakaras, child’s point of view, then their reading books to chil-1999) found more mixed effects. On the positive

dren makes sense. If you teach public relations, having side, students in service-learning courses were indeed your students conduct a PR campaign for a local

more satisfied with the course than were students in

nonprofit organization clearly benefits their learn-

non-service-learning courses. In the same compar-

ing. If you teach public health or community nursing, ison, students perceived that their service-learning

your students can better master the subject matter

experience slightly enhanced their civic engagement,

if they plan and implement a community health or

their interpersonal skills, and their understanding

health education effort. If you teach political science, of people of different backgrounds from their own.

your students can learn how to navigate the politics

However, they reported no effect on their academic

at the various levels of government by conducting

skills (writing, analytical, quantitative, or knowledge) partnership projects in your course (Redlawsk, Rice,

or their professional skills (confidence in their choice

& Associates, 2009).

of major and career, expectation of graduation, or

Second, be aware of the ethical questions that

career preparation). In fact, students who opted out

some service-learning experiences raise, even though

of service-learning felt that they did advance their requiring them is legal. If the experience involves

academic and professional skills.

working for social change, is it appropriate to require How positive the service-learning experience is

students to do this, no matter how they feel about the depends on several factors. The single most powerful

changes aimed for? Should they have to give service

determinant is a student’s degree of interest in the

even if their current politics and ethics don’t warrant subject matter before the experience. Therefore,

it? Will they be placed in physical danger?

service-learning is best reserved for upper-level

Third, consider your time constraints and com-

courses in a major (Astin et al., 2000). Other known

mitment. Service-learning requires more planning

Experiential Learning Activities

153

and coordination than most other methods, especially

How will you assess and grade it? How will you

your first foray into using it. If it fits well in your link the service to the course content? When will

course and schedule, begin your preliminary tasks at

you have students discuss their experiences? What

least a couple of months before the term begins. (See writing tasks will you assign for reflection? (Best to Stacey, Rice, & Langer, 1997, a concise and com-have multiple reflection assignments.) How will you

prehensive instructor’s manual.) First, identify one or grade these reflection assignments? This information

more appropriate community agencies. You might

will be needed for your syllabus.

start with schools, medical and mental health facili-

Finally, make the necessary logistical arrange-

ties, social service agencies, and the local United Way.

ments: getting help with liability issues from your

Then schedule a face-to-face meeting with the key

institution’s risk management office (such as release contact person to find out about the organization’s

forms); creating student teams if appropriate (highly needs and expectations and to explain your own for

advisable to mitigate any physical danger); helping

your course. Ensure that the agency will orient and

students and the agency coordinate schedules; en-

supervise your students. Alternatively, have students suring students are oriented and supervised at the

find their own agency and work out the project

agency; arranging for student transportation, even

details, or ask your campus service-learning or

if just car pools; and devising a system to monitor

voluntary-service center, if you have one, to identify students’ hours of service.

one or more agencies with needs and expectations

that will serve your course outcomes.

Additional Guidance

Then start making course design decisions. Will

A number of books offer additional guidance for

the service-learning be required, optional, or extra

instructors and a wealth of ideas for solid service-

credit? Will you offer an alternative assignment? How learning projects, including exemplars. To stay abreast much service-learning will be required? Fewer than

of the more innovative and successful projects and

twenty hours reduces its impact (Gray et al., 2000).

to share your own with colleagues, see the Michigan What previous course components will be eliminated

Journal of Community Service-Learning and the Journal to make time for service-learning? How much

of Public Service and Outreach.

will it count toward the final grade? What will be

the requirements of the service-learning experience?

C H A P T E R 16

Learning in Groups

Every class conveys two lessons: one in the learning. Most of the researchconducted on it in content and another in the teaching method.

the 1980s and 1990s relied on the term cooperative Student-active techniques send the message

learning (Millis & Cottell, 1998), which was defined that with expert guidance, learners can actively

very generally as a structured teaching method where

discover, analyze, and use knowledge on their own.

small student groups work together on a common

With this participatory empowerment, students come

task (Cooper, Robinson, & McKinney, 1993).

to understand that they must assume responsibility

Collaborative learning emerged in the 1990s as the for their own learning. One particularly powerful

label favored in the sciences and engineering.

student-active method, when implemented properly,

Following Mazur’s (1997) lead, these disciplines also is to put students in pairs or small groups to work

use the terms peer instruction and peer tutoring when and learn together. Our use of it conveys the message referring to pairs of small groups of students who

that when people work together with a cooperative

are explaining their answers to one another. The

ethos, they can accomplish much more than they can

literature shows no consensus about the difference,

as individuals working apart—that is, two heads are

if any, among all these terms. However, there is

better than one, three heads are better than two, and one distinct, highly structured version of group

for some tasks, four or five heads are best.

work known as team learning. It emphasizes mutual, positive interdependence more than any other

version. Students take team as well as individual tests, A GROUP BY ANY OTHER NAME . . .

and their individual accountability and grades rest as much on their team’s performance as on their own

This teaching method has become popular enough

(Michaelsen, 1997–1998).

to take on multiple labels. These days, the most com-

Since the terms group work and group learning monly used terms are simply group work and group are so commonly used, they are the choices here.

155

156

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

The terms group and team will be used interchange-traditional techniques on student productivity and

ably, except when referring to team learning.

learning. More than half the literature reported

group learning to have the stronger impact, while

only 10 percent found individualistic methods more

THE CASE FOR GROUP WORK

powerful. In addition, group learning enhanced

interpersonal attraction in 60 percent of the studies, Given how widely used group work is today, it is sur-while competition did so in only 3 percent. A similar prising how slow a start it had in higher education.

literature survey a few years later indicated that

By 1990, nearly six hundred published studies dating

group learning is more effective than traditional me-

back ninety years had compared the effectiveness of

thods in improving critical thinking, self-esteem,

cooperative, competitive, and individual approaches

racial and ethnic relations, and positive social behavior to teaching. Many of these studies found overwhelm-

(Cooper et al., 1993).

ing support for the superiority of group work, and

The superiority of group learning seems to hold

even those that didn’t find support identified no detri-at all educational levels and across student back-

mental effects to using it (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, grounds and extends as students mature into

1991). Yet group learning met with stiff faculty resis-adulthood (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 1994). Dis-

tance at first, probably because old teaching paradigms advantaged students benefit as well. Frierson (1986)

and habits die hard. If we had no trouble learning in-documented that minority nursing students who

dividually when we were in college, it’s hard for us

studied cooperatively for their board exams per-

to understand why our students would. This is why

formed significantly better than those who studied

the best students can become the worst teachers. Be-

alone. After instituting group-based, out-of-class

ing proud survivors of the lecture method, most of

enrichment programs for at-risk calculus students

us just can’t anticipate where, how, and why our stu-

at the University of California, Berkeley, Treisman

dents would have trouble learning our material the

(1986) found that black students in the program

same way we did.

received course grades over one letter grade higher

In general, the research on the effects of group

than their nongroup counterparts.

learning

has

focused

on

three

fundamental

This does not mean that group learning

dimensions—achievement/productivity

(learning),

should supplant the interactive lecture, whole-class

positive interpersonal relationships, and psychological discussion, experiential learning, and other methods.

health—and group work yields positive results on all

Variety helps maintain student engagement and

of them (Johnson et al., 1991; Johnson & Johnson, ensures reaching students with all learning styles.

1989, 1994; Millis & Cottell, 1998). Astin (1993) Moreover, the research indicates that cooperative

studied the effects of 192 environmental factors on

learning need not be used all the time to have positive various educational outcomes of 27,064 students at

effects on student achievement.

309 institutions. According to his results, the top two A case can also be made against group learn-influences on academic success and satisfaction are

ing. First, students have to acquire and use some skills interaction among students and interaction between

and knowledge on their own as individuals. Second,

faculty and students, each a key component of

most younger students have been learning in groups

group learning strategies. In fact, both factors rank all through school, so we are not giving them a to-significantly higher than curriculum and content

tally novel experience in college. What is novel is our variables. Light (1990, 1992) reported similar results expecting them to monitor and sanction each other

in the Harvard Assessment Seminars.

without the kind of teacher intervention they are used Johnson and Johnson (1989) surveyed 193

to relying on (Jassawalla, Malshe, & Sashittal, 2008). In studies comparing the effects of group versus

fact, some faculty perceive that students have become

Learning in Groups

157

so close over their school years that they hesitate to

•

From low-to-moderate to high expectations of

evaluate each other’s group contributions and perfor-

preparation for class

mance honestly. Often they cover up for each other,

•

From a low-risk, private presence to a high-risk

showing more loyalty to their peers than to us. The

public presence

third downside of group learning is its reliance on the

•

From personal responsibility for attendance to

brighter students to teach the slower ones. While you community expectation and responsibility

learn a subject most thoroughly by teaching it, many

•

From individualistic competition among peers to

talented students learn very effectively on their own collaboration among group members whose suc-and don’t benefit from the reinforcement of teach-

cess depends on one another

ing it. Furthermore, the time that the brighter stu-

•

From formal, impersonal relationships with peers

dents spend tutoring their classmates is time that they and instructors to genuine interest in one another’s

are not getting additional challenges and acquiring

learning and overall well-being

more advanced knowledge and skills. Group learn-

•

From viewing instructors and texts as sole author-

ing clearly benefits average students, but at the cost of ities to seeing themselves, their peers, and their

the gifted ones.

community as important sources of knowledge

Therefore, consider group work a supplemen-

tary technique suitable for various classroom activities Young first-year students in particular can have

(Millis, 1990). It serves well for many lecture break a hard time making this adjustment. As group mem-activities (see Chapter Twelve) and can jump-start

bers, they may have experienced uneven workloads,

class discussion (see Chapters Thirteen and Four-

interpersonal conflicts, boredom, exclusion, and even teen). It is also useful for social and subject matter lower grades in elementary and high school where

icebreakers (see Chapter Four), experiential learn-

group learning may have been mismanaged (MacGre-

ing activities (see Chapter Fifteen), case debriefing gor, 1990).

(see Chapter Nineteen), problem-based learning (see

In spite of their group experience, your students

Chapter Twenty), mathematical problem-solving

may know very little about group dynamics, and it

exercises (see Chapter Twenty-One), science labo-

is well worth teaching them some basic principles.

ratories (see Chapter Twenty-Two), some classroom

For instance, acquaint them with communication

assessment exercises (see Chapter Twenty-Eight), and

patterns. Draw a few simple graphics on the board

review sessions (see Chapter Thirty).

with circles standing for individuals and arrows des-

ignating the direction of communication. Show your

students one-way and two-way (double-arrow) com-

munication between two individuals, then a group

CHANGING METHODS,

with leader-directed communication (all one-way),

CHANGING ROLES

and a group with balanced communication (arrows

connecting multiple individuals). Finally, have your

Group learning casts both students and instructors in students sketch the patterns of some of the group

different roles from the ones they usually assume

communication patterns they have experienced and

in traditional lecture-based classrooms (Johnson

consider how these patterns affected their participa-

et al., 1991; MacGregor, 1990; Millis & Cottell,

tion. Ask them to share their drawings and partici-

1998; Rhem, 1992). Students must move:

pation experiences with the class or in their groups.

This exercise should sensitize them to the benefits of

•

From passive listeners and note takers to active

balanced communication (Kustra & Potter, 2008).

problem solvers, discoverers, contributors, and

Students may also be unfamiliar with the typical

transformers of knowledge

stages of team development—forming, storming,

158

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

norming, and performing (Tuckman, 1965). If you

another to complete the task at the desired level of

are putting students in long-term, stable groups, they quality.

need to know these stages, especially the fact that

To ensure this element, you can do one or more

storming is normal and not symptomatic of team

of the following:

breakdown.

To give your students a crash course in group

•

Assign a group product on which all members

dynamics as well as the wisdom and the tools to col-

sign off and are given a group grade (you can also

laborate successfully, refer them to Kennedy and Nil-

separately grade individual contributions, if you

son’s (2008) free online book. It is written simply and choose).

is colorfully illustrated for undergraduates.

•

Give group (as well as individual) quizzes and tests

The instructor’s role changes with group learn-

that count toward each member’s individual grade.

ing as well. No longer is it focused on sorting, clas-

•

Allocate essential resources or pieces of informa-

sifying, and screening out students. Its primary goal tion across group members, requiring them to

is to develop students’ competencies and talents as “a share (materials interdependence).

guide on the side” instead of “the sage on the stage.”

•

Assign each member a different part of the total

In other words, the role shifts from expert/authority task (task interdependence).

figure to facilitator/coach, who unobtrusively cir-

•

Randomly select students to speak for their group.

culates, observes, monitors, and answers questions

•

Require that all members edit one another’s work

(Millis, 1990). Group work calls for placing much

using Word’s Track Changes feature, a wiki, or

of the responsibility for learning squarely on the

Google Docs.

students’ shoulders. Of course, relinquishing control

•

Assign group members different roles. Com-

can be difficult at first for an instructor.

mon roles are recorder, spokesperson, resear-

cher, summarizer, checker/corrector, skeptic,

organizer/manager, spy (on the progress of other

THE SETUP AND MANAGEMENT

groups), observer, writer, timekeeper, conflict

OF STUDENT GROUPS

resolver, and runner/liaison to other groups or

the instructor. Less-known ones are coordinator,

Group learning techniques share a number of essen-

driver (of the group’s operating style), finisher

tial features that you must build into or provide for (lends a sense of urgency to the task), implementer

in the way you assemble groups, design tasks, manage

(of group decisions), supporter (harmonizer),

activities, and determine grades (Cooper et al., 1993; monitor-evaluator, originator (of ideas), and

Feichtner & Davis, 1984; Felder & Brent, 2001; John-resource investigator (Belbin, 2004).

son et al., 1991; Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Kagan, 1988; Michaelsen, 1997–1998; Millis, 1990; Millis & Cottell, 1998). These features are especially critical for Individual Accountability

long-term, stable teams.

All members must be held responsible for their own

learning as well as for the learning of other group

Positive Interdependence

members. At the same time, no member should feel

For a group to function effectively, each member must that he or she is giving more (or less) than an equal feel a sense of personal responsibility for the success share of effort to the group task. In other words, no of his or her teammates. In addition, each member’s

freeloaders, social loafers, or hitchhikers are allowed.

success must depend at least in part on the group’s

You can build in this element in several ways,

success. In brief, members must feel they need one

some of which overlap with those above:

Learning in Groups

159

•

Base final grades predominantly on individual

the amount and importance of group work in the

quizzes, tests, papers, and other assignments.

course—at least 10 to 20 percent but no more than

•

Count the team grades only for students who are

60 percent.

passing the individual quizzes, tests, and written

How valid and accurate are peer performance

assignments.

evaluations? Students often give all their teammates

•

Randomly select students to speak for their group.

high evaluations. Does this reflect the fact that group

•

Assign group members different roles (see the last

learning motivates students to prepare and perform

subsection for possible roles).

more effectively than most other methods, or are

•

Assign group members primary responsibility for

students merely covering up for the poor contribu-

different parts of the team project, and grade them

tors? You have to make the determination based on

on their part (for example, one member develops

your own experience at your particular institution.

the bibliography, another conducts the research,

If your students are merciless in penalizing freeload-and another does the write-up).

ers, social loafers, slackers, couch potatoes, sandbag-

•

Give teams time early in the semester to discuss

gers, control freaks, ego trippers, bullies, whiners, and agree on what they will do to sanction non-martyrs, and saboteurs, chances are that their positive contributing members.

performance evaluations are valid and accurate. But if

•

Allow teams to “fire” a noncontributing member

you have reason to suspect that freeloaders and other (after a verbal and a written warning).

group-pathological types are getting off easy, try this

•

Allow an overburdened member to “resign” from

strategy. Have students write peer performance eval-

a group of freeloaders and seek membership on

uations two, three, or four times during the semester, another team.

and schedule them right after major project sections

•

Base a significant portion of the final grade on

are due. This way any anger or frustration toward

peer performance evaluations.

errant group members will come out in the heat

of the moment. Another way to counter cover-ups

This last strategy deserves elaboration. It can

is to say you will toss out any peer performance

be used only when groups have stable memberships

evaluations that give A’s to all teams members.

over several weeks or months. At the end of the

It seems that times have changed in the way

term or the group work unit, have each member

students treat freeloaders. Early studies found that

assign each of their teammates a letter grade for

group members punished their dysfunctional peers

group contributions, or estimate the percentage of

(Ferris & Hess, 1984; Jalajas & Sutton, 1984; Murrell, the work they contributed, or allocate a limited

1984). However, giving today’s younger students

number of points across their teammates. If you

the power to sanction social loafing in no way

use percentages or points, you may want to forbid

guarantees they will use it when necessary. Quite

students from giving equal percentages or points

the contrary, they expect you as the instructor

across their teammates. It is essential that students to know about the freeloaders and to administer

have criteria on which to grade their peers, such

justice by giving different individual grades on the

as attendance, preparation, promptness, leadership,

group product, even if you have explained that their

quality of contributions, quantity of contributions,

grades will depend solely on quality of the group

and social skills. If you provide these criteria, be sure product (Jassawalla et al., 2008). These students’

to explain them and your peer evaluation policies

expectations no doubt reflect their many years in

and procedures before the group work begins. Better

K–12 group work, where teachers handed down the

yet, have the groups develop their own lists of the

rules of engagement and intervened when violations

criteria that define a good team member. Either way,

occurred. So they come to college ill prepared and

the peer portion of the final grade should reflect

ill trained for adult-level team dynamics. In other

160

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

words, we have to dispel them of their immature

The brighter ones can benefit too: by teaching the

view of group work and teach them to bear collective

material, they learn it all the better, at least if they responsibilities (Jassawalla et al., 2008).

didn’t learn it thoroughly on their own. Of course,

One Clemson University faculty member,

slower students can also hold back the gifted.

W. H. Warmath Jr. (personal communication,

Depending on your course, it may be more

September 19, 2008), successfully instills a more

important that you maximize heterogeneity on a

mature understanding of team dynamics in his

variable other than ability or content background.

first-year students. He firmly informs them that their For example, if you want your groups to debate ideas

individual project grade will be solely the group

and critically examine their own, you might want

grade, that they will be on their own to resolve their to find out students’ views the first week of class

group malfunctions, and that he will serve only as

(have them do a free-write, for instance) and assign

a last-resort mediator and only in the presence of

teams based on varying opinions and value systems.

the entire group. However, he gives the teams the

Expediency may also have to take priority. If you

time and the authority to develop their own contract

want teams to meet face-to-face outside class, you

before they begin their project. In this contract, they may have to consider students’ schedules in assigning must specify exactly when and where they will hold

groups. Finally, be careful to avoid mixing females

weekly, out-of-class meetings, how they will divide

with a male majority. Heller and Hollabaugh (1992)

the labor and responsibilities, when sections of the

found that males in the majority tend to dominate

project will be due, and what the sanctions will be

and overshadow the females.

for absences from meetings and for not completing

The research also indicates that students should

assignments on time. Warmath reviews and approves

not form their own long-term groups. Such a com-

the contracts (or returns them for revision), and all position only reinforces existing cliques, encourages group members sign it. Since he instituted team

discussion of extracurricular topics, and can favorably contracts several years ago, he has counseled only one bias the members’ peer performance evaluations. But

group, has had no complaints about group-grading

it does reduce intragroup conflict.

policy, and has not heard about any freeloader

Optimal group size varies with the open-

problems. Oakley, Brent, Felder, and Elhajj (2004)

endedness of the task. Several group activities de-

also recommend having groups develop documents

scribed later in this chapter and in Chapter Twelve

detailing team policies and expectations.

rely on pairs. But most other activities require groups of three to five to ensure lively, broad participation and prevent freeloading. A threesome seems to be

Appropriate Group Composition,

optimal for mathematical and scientific problem-

Size, and Duration

solving tasks that involve alternative means to one

According to the research, groups that are hetero-

correct answer (Heller & Hollabaugh, 1992). Four

geneous in terms of ability, race, gender, and other

or five is best for tasks with multiple respectable

characteristics help students develop social skills,

answers involving brainstorming, interpretation, and

understand and get along with individuals of dif-

problem solving of a “focal” or “playground” nature

fering social backgrounds, and learn the material

(see Chapter Fourteen). Still, teams of up to seven

better (Heller, Keith, & Anderson, 1992; Heller & members can function effectively and offer the added

Hollabaugh, 1992). When group composition is di-

benefit of greater diversity (Michaelsen, 1997–1998).

verse in ability or content background specifically, the Ideal group duration also depends on the task.

slower students learn from the brighter ones—often

Long-term group assignments facilitate major projects better than they do from traditional methods because

and ongoing tasks, since duration fosters group loyalty students seem to speak one another’s language.

and refines members’ cooperative skills. But students

Learning in Groups

161

can get acquainted with more classmates if groups

and teach each other but also because they should be

change with each short-term project or every several

tackling a more challenging task than they otherwise

weeks. What often happens, however, is that students

would. Anything less also sours the brighter students develop team loyalties quickly and plead to keep the

against working in groups.

same groups throughout the term.

Ad hoc groups or pairs based solely on seating Explicit Attention to Collaborative

proximity may be sufficient for occasional problem-

Social Skills

solving and discussion assignments. In large classes

where space is tight and chairs are immobile, you may Working together effectively in long-term, stable

feel limited to these groups. But you may be able to

groups requires certain behaviors of all the individuals overcome such limitations by assigning seats.

involved: attending all meetings, coming prepared to

contribute, listening actively, taking turns in talking, not interrupting, encouraging others, cooperating,

Face-to-Face Interaction

sharing resources, being open-minded, giving con-

Instructors should allocate some class time to team

structive feedback, tactfully defending one’s views,

meetings, as experience has shown that you cannot al-

compromising, and showing respect for others.

ways rely on students to meet and collaborate face-to-According to cooperative learning proponents,

face outside class. If they can find a way, they may just these are acquired skills that you must explicitly

divide the labor and go their separate ways, defeating foster in as many ways as possible: having the class

the whole purpose and benefits of group learning.

brainstorm and agree to the qualities of a good team-

Of course, virtual interaction over email, chatrooms, mate; including these skills among your outcomes for

or discussion boards can and sometimes must substi-

group work; including them in your peer evaluation

tute for face-to-face meetings. If you have students

criteria; modeling them yourself; praising students

communicate using your online course management

you see practicing them; and, especially, scheduling a system, you can keep better track of their virtual than few sessions for students to reflect on and process the their face-to-face meetings.

quality of their group interactions. Young students in particular need occasions for collective reflection and Genuine Learning and Challenge

feedback since so many of them depended on their

The group task must make students learn something,

teachers to troubleshoot group problems in primary

not just do something. It should go beyond what

and secondary school. For them to take responsibility the students have learned in the course and demand

for their team’s performance, they have to acquire

group synergy and higher-order thinking processes

the courage and communication skills to express

(application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) to com-criticism constructively to their peers.

plete. In addition, it should have either multiple reSome instructors shy away from overseeing

spectable answers or multiple means to the answers

group processing sessions, largely because they don’t and pose a genuine challenge that requires more than

know how to run one. But it’s really quite easy. Pro-

one student mind to meet within the given time limit.

cessing best begins with students’ assessing themselves In brief, it should be a harder task than you’d assign as teammates, answering questions such as these:

to students working alone.

This setup rule for group work is too often for-

•

How many of my group’s meetings did I attend?

gotten. Students find doing a routine activity in a

•

How well prepared was I for each meeting? How

group boring busywork. Such a task also undercuts

consistently did I complete whatever task I was

much of the learning payoff of group work. Students

assigned to do?

learn more not only because they discuss the material

•

How well did I listen to others in my group?

162

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Did I ever interrupt them or get angry with them?

Then the group members can assess how much they

•

When I disagreed with one or more teammates,

have improved.

did I try to find common ground or otherwise

Team learning supporters take a different view

resolve the conflict? Did I propose or agree to a

from the cooperative learning camp. They maintain

compromise?

that students intuitively know from their life experi-

•

How much did I comment productively on my

ence what defines a good (and bad) team member,

teammates’ ideas, including giving them praise and

and they do not need time to group-process beyond

encouragement?

writing peer performance evaluations. If students

•

How well did I play my assigned role?

encounter internal conflicts and inequities, they must

•

How consistently did I share my knowledge and

resolve them on their own without instructor

resources with my group?

intervention (which may include firing the offending

member). After all, the work world will not be inter-

Students should present their self-assessments

ested in their interactional problems and preferences, orally or in writing within their groups. (You can

and one of your jobs is to prepare them to function

make this a writing assignment.) Then their team-

effectively as contributing adults.

mates should provide feedback, couching it in the

Which is the wiser position? It depends mostly

same terms as a response to the self-assessment.

on the maturity of your students. Many adult lear-

Following this procedure, students are more likely to ners understand adult team dynamics and already

take the feedback seriously and accept it (Kustra & have good interpersonal communication skills, but

Potter, 2008).

traditional-age students rarely do. The better position Do counsel students that the feedback should

also depends on your personality and background.

help their teammates, not hurt them. This is not the

Some instructors enjoy and do an excellent job of

time to unload. Rather, they should supply positive as teaching the soft skills, while others feel more com-well as negative evaluations. Furthermore, they should fortable and competent dealing with the hard skills.

describe specific behaviors, not judge the person,

and should ask whether he understands the feedback,

recalls the behaviors mentioned, or has questions

(Kustra & Potter, 2008).

MANAGEMENT TIPS

After the individual self-assessments and feed-

back, the students should address some questions

Beyond the essential elements already discussed are

within their groups, and a recorder should take notes: several standard operating procedures that help ensure student success and make the management of group

•

How well have we included and encouraged all

activities easier and more predictable for you (Cooper our members in our discussions?

et al., 1993; Feichtner & Davis, 1984; Johnson et al.,

•

How evenly have we shared the work?

1991; Millis, 1990).

•

How well have we handled conflict?

First and foremost, start small. Begin by trying

•

How high-quality has our task performance been?

out a small-scale, pretested technique (like those in the

•

How could we accomplish our tasks more effec-

next section) in the class where you feel the most con-tively?

fident. Expect it not to work perfectly—any strategy

•

How could we function as a group more

can fall short the first time tried—and plan for your smoothly?

time estimate to be off one way or another. A safe

launching pad is an optional help or review session.

The recorder should save these notes and read

Second, use group learning only with a

them aloud at the next group processing session.

criterion-referenced grading system (see Chapter

Learning in Groups

163

Thirty-One). Grading on a curve (that is, norm-

first draft, and so on). It is best to schedule all final referenced grading) undercuts the spirit of cooper-product deadlines comfortably in advance of the end

ation and the prospect of group success on which

of the term. Tight time limits and deadlines help keep group learning relies. An absolute grading scale gives teams on task.

all students an equal chance to achieve.

Sixth, ensure the assignment of individual roles

Third, introduce the activity to your class by ex-

within each group. Many possible roles were listed

plaining your rationale for using it. Without getting above in the section on positive interdependence. At

technical, mention some of the research that docu-

the very least, each group of three or more needs a

ments its superior effectiveness. Perhaps list the crucial recorder or spokesperson. Role assignments should

elements of group learning and your objectives for the rotate at least weekly among the members of stable

group work. Also reassure your students that they will groups. You can make the first role assignments ran-not jeopardize their grades or be accused of cheating domly, or use the following technique for assigning

by helping each other.

roles in ad hoc groups. After breaking students into

Fourth, give groups a specific, structured task

groups, tell them to point to one fellow member

that requires a written product to show at the end.

on the count of three. Assign the student receiv-

The major reasons for group work failure are a lack of ing the most points the task of appointing the

organization and specificity in the assignment and the recorder/spokesperson and any other necessary roles.

students’ confusion over its purpose and expectations.

The element of surprise adds humor to the moment.

The written end product may be no more formal

Seventh, set the rule of “three before me.” That

is, you can insist that students take their questions to than handwritten notes for the group’s verbal report at each other first and not to you until they have asked the end of the session. It may be a problem solution, a at least three other students, or accept only group, not list of ideas, or a group test answer sheet. Or it may be individual, questions.

a major team project for which students meet several

Eighth, set rules to control noise levels and

times over weeks to complete.

maintain order. Among the most popular ones are

A word of warning is in order, however. Feicht-

“no unnecessary talking” and “only one group mem-

ner and Davis (1984) present evidence that large-scale, ber talking at one time.” Another helpful hint is to

formal group assignments are more problematic than

bring the classroom to silence by informing students

smaller-scale and less formal ones. Specifically, they that you will signal when time is up by raising your

caution against assigning more than one major group

hand. They should then stop talking and raise their

presentation and more than three written papers or

hands as soon as they see yours up. This technique

reports per term. Otherwise students are more likely

enables you to silence a large lecture hall in seconds.

to report having a negative group experience. Group

Ninth, to ensure that groups have a genuine

tests, however, tend to generate positive experiences learning experience, conclude each group session

(see next section).

with a means of assessing students’ progress or

Fifth, set and enforce tight time limits and dead-

mastery of the material. You might ask for a brief

lines for task completion, even for short tasks that

presentation or progress report from each group.

pairs or groups can complete in a couple of minutes.

Or you can administer a quick quiz or classroom

It is helpful to bring a timer or stopwatch with you

assessment exercise (see Chapter Twenty-Nine). If

to all group work sessions. For tasks of five to fifty you choose a quiz, you should set a high standard of

minutes, you might give appropriate ten-minute or

mastery that all group members must meet before

two-minute warnings. Larger-scale assignments call

any of them can leave class. Alternatively, you can

for firm deadlines for the various subtasks (bibliogra-select a member from each group at random to take

phy, prospectus, data collection, data analysis, outline, the quiz for the group.

164

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

TRIED-AND-TRUE GROUP

quiz to the group, a representative, or each individual LEARNING STRATEGIES

member to assess their mastery of the material. In her music theory class, Berry (2008) integrates STAD

If you are interested in trying out or extending group within the academic game Survivor. For the daily

learning in your courses, consider experimenting

challenges, she distributes workbook exercises for

with some of the proven strategies in this section.

the “tribes” to complete, then administers individual While the levels of success and usefulness vary

quizzes. These quiz scores are totaled for a tribal

by discipline and instructor, you can adjust them

score. While tribes don’t vote off weak members,

or create your own versions to serve your needs.

students perform diligently due to peer pressure, their The following sampler comes from several sources,

personal pride, and their sense of responsibility to

including Cooper et al. (1993), Johnson et al. (1991), their tribe.

Kagan (1988), Michaelsen (1997–1998), Millis

•

Jigsaw. Each member of a “base group” is

(1990), and Millis and Cottell (1998). Many work

assigned a mini-topic to research. Students then meet well as a student-active lecture break (see Chapter

in “expert groups” with others assigned the same

Twelve), and some double as a classroom assessment

mini-topic to discuss and refine their understanding.

technique (see Chapter Twenty-Eight). Although

The base groups re-form, and members teach their

a few may sound adolescent, all have been used

mini-topics to their teammates.

effectively at the postsecondary level:

•

Structured/academic

controversy. Pairs in a

group of four are assigned opposing sides of an issue.

•

Think-pair-share. Give students a question or Each pair researches its assigned position, and the

problem and ask them to think quietly of an answer

group discusses the issue with the goal of exposing as or solution. Have them discuss their responses with

much information as possible about the subject. Pairs their neighbor, and then share them with the class.

can then switch sides and continue the discussion.

You can also set the requirement that they come to a

•

Group investigation. Assign each group or let consensus or submit one piece of written work as a

each group choose a different topic within a given

pair. Set a time limit of one or two minutes for the

subject area. Groups are free to organize their work

pair exchange. You can extend this format by having

and research methods and even to determine the form

each pair in agreement join another pair in agreement of the final product, such as a video, play, slide show, to come to a consensus together.

website, demonstration, presentation, or paper.

•

Pairs check. Partners coach each other on

worksheet problems or check their class or reading

•

Numbered heads together. Assign a number

notes for completeness and accuracy. This two-

to each member of a team of four. Pose a thought

minute activity is similar to the lecture break pair and question or problem, and allow a few minutes for dis-compare in Chapter Twelve.

cussion. Call out a number, designating only students

•

T.A.P.P.S. (talking aloud paired problem solv-

with that number to act as the group spokesperson.

ing). Pairs of students solve a problem or resolve a case This exercise promotes individual accountability.

by taking turns playing different roles—one that talks

•

Talking chips. This method guarantees equal

through the process of reaching a solution, while the participation in discussion groups. Each group mem-other listens, asks questions, and provides feedback.

ber receives the same number of poker chips (or any

•

STAD (student teams-achievement divisions).

other markers, such as index cards, pencils, or pens).

After a lecture, video, or demonstration, teams

Each time a member wishes to speak, he or she tosses

of three or four receive a worksheet to discuss and

a chip into the center of the table. Once individ-

complete. When members feel that they have reached

uals have used up their chips, they can no longer

acceptable solutions, you give a brief oral or written speak. The discussion proceeds until all members have

Learning in Groups

165

exhausted their chips. Then they reclaim their chips

retention of the course content over individual tests and begin another round.

(Cortright, Collins, Rodenbaugh, & DiCarlo, 2003).

•

Send a problem. Each group member writes

a question or problem on a flash card. The group

reaches consensus on the correct answer or solution

PREPARING STUDENTS FOR LIFE

and writes it on the back. Each group then passes

its cards to another group, which formulates its own

Younger college students are intent on learning about answers or solutions and checks them against those

the real world they are about to enter, while older

written on the back by the sending group. If groups

ones want to know how they can function more

disagree, the receiving group writes its answer as an effectively in it at a higher level. As instructors, we alternative. Stacks of cards continue to rotate from

need to prepare our students to thrive in this rapidly group to group until they are returned to the original changing and increasingly challenging world—to

senders, who then examine and discuss any alternative make them more knowledgeable citizens, consumers,

answers or solutions given by other groups.

social participants, appreciators of the arts, and science

•

Group tests. Each student takes a quiz or

watchers and supporters, as well as more successful

test individually and hands it in for a substantial

professionals and businesspersons. We select our

portion (one-half or two-thirds) of her quiz or test

content with this goal in mind, and we should

grade. Then students assemble into groups and take

similarly select teaching methods to reinforce our

the same quiz or test again as a team, turning it in

verbal messages and build the kinds of social skills

for the remaining portion of their grade. In most

students will need.

cases, the team scores exceed the individual scores

Group collaboration is the way the world works

and raise the students’ grades. As a near-daily activity because well-functioning teams generate more inno-in team learning, this technique is called a readiness vative and creative ideas and devise better solutions assessment test (Michaelsen, 1997–1998). Generally

to problems than do individuals with a competitive

the quiz or test is objective, but it doesn’t have

ethos. In the education we provide students, we need

to be. Groups tests not only give students’ quick

to transform them into high-functioning team mem-

feedback on their individual thinking and answers,

bers, as both leaders and followers. Therefore, we

but they also make the students review, discuss, and

must implement group learning with care, teaching

debate the material, processing it at a higher level.

students to assume collective responsibility and share Not surprisingly, this technique improves students’

a collaborative ethos.

C H A P T E R 17

Writing-to-Learn Activities

and Assignments

Why have your students do in-class or candiagnoseandclarifypointsofconfusionbefore homework-related writing exercises—

you give the next exam and move on to other topics

often called “informal writing”—if you

(Angelo & Cross, 1993; Cross & Angelo, 1988). In don’t grade them? The research gives plenty of

fact, the student feedback and questions that writing reasons. For starters, writing about the material helps exercises provide can plan a good part of your classes students learn it better and retain it longer—whatever for you. Reading short, informal writing assignments

the subject and whether the exercise involves note

that do not require grading takes no more time than

taking, outlining, summarizing, recording focused

any other type of class preparation. Finally, many

thought, composing short answers, or writing

writing exercises give students the chance to learn

full-fledged essays. Second, writing is so powerful

about themselves—their feelings, values, cognitive

because it makes students think actively about the

processes, and learning strengths and weaknesses.

material, and depending on your prompt, you

Younger students in particular need and appreciate

can make your students think at any cognitive

such opportunities for self-exploration. This chapter level you would like. Third, even informal writing

covers a wide variety of writing-to-learn activities

can define audience other than the instructor and

and assignments that have proven instructional value

therefore develop students’ sensitivity to the interests, (Ambron, 1987; Angelo & Cross, 1993; Cross &

backgrounds, and vocabularies of different readers. A Angelo, 1988; Hinkle & Hinkle, 1990; Kalman & fourth reason is for classroom assessment (see Chapter Kalman, 1996; Kirkpatrick & Pittendrigh, 1984;

Twenty-Eight)—that is, to find out quickly, while

Langer & Applebee, 1987; Neal, 2008; Newell,

you’re still focusing on a particular topic, exactly

1984; Wright, Herteis, & Abernehy, 2001; Young,

what your class is and isn’t learning. This way you

1997; Young & Fulwiler, 1986).

167

168

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

FREEWRITES

Of course, freewrites needn’t be private. Stu-

dents can share them with one another, in which case

Students write about a predetermined topic for a

the activity is called inkshedding (Hunt, 2004). They brief, specified number of minutes (one to three) as

can trade and comment on one another’s freewrites.

fast as they can think and put words on paper.

Their purpose is not to evaluate the other’s writing

The objective is to activate prior knowledge or

but to understand it. After such an exercise, the class to generate ideas by free association, disregarding

is ready for discussion.

grammar, spelling, punctuation, and the like.

Freewrites can also be assigned as homework.

Freewrites serve as effective in-class warm-up

In the concept assignment, students read a section or exercises. Usually students walk in having forgotten

two of a book, then begin freewriting about what

what they discussed in the previous class meeting, the they just read and what they don’t understand. They

week’s reading, and the lab manual instructions. Fre-

read the next section and freewrite again. At the

quent freewrites on the readings also put students on end of the assigned chapter or unit, they write three notice that they had better keep up with the course.

sentences: one on each of three key concepts they

Here are some possible freewrite topics:

have identified in the readings. Students usually write three or more pages of notes and reflection (Kalman

•

“Write down all the important points you

& Kalman, 1996, as applied to physics). The main

remember from last Wednesday’s discussion.”

benefit of concept assignments is getting the students

•

“Summarize the most important points from the

not only to do the readings but to really think

readings assigned for today [or from the day’s lec-

about them.

ture or class activities].”

While it is usually best not to grade freewrites,

•

“From what you recall from the lab manual, write

at least not formally, you might collect them and

down what is to be done in lab today, any proce-

check off those that demonstrate evidence of the

dures that confuse you, and what the experiment

student’s having listened to the lecture or discussion, is expected to create or show.”

done the assigned readings, or studied the lab manual

•

Write three key words on the board from the last

(see Chapter Twenty-Three). You can count free-

class or reading and ask students to explain their

writes as part of class participation or as ungraded but importance.

required assignments.

•

Have students define a concept in their own

words, explain the parts of a complex concept,

give real-life examples of a concept, or compare

THE ONE-MINUTE PAPER

concepts from today’s class with those from the

previous class.

With books and notebooks closed, students summa-

•

Write a seed sentence on the board—that is, a

rize the “most important” or “most useful” points

major hypothesis, conclusion, or provocative state-

they learned from the day’s lecture, reading assign-

ment related to class or readings—and ask students

ment, laboratory, or discussion. Time permitting,

to write their reactions.

they also write down questions that remain in their

•

Have students apply a principle to their own ex-

minds. Although this is called a “one-minute paper,”

perience.

the exercise usually requires two or three minutes.

•

Have them write the answer to a question that

Just as freewrites can function as a warm-up,

your last minilecture, your demonstration, a video,

a one-minute paper can serve as a “cool-down.”

or a class activity answered.

It helps students absorb, digest, and internalize new

•

Have them freewrite answers to test review ques-

material, moving it into long-term memory. It also

tions to prepare for a tightly timed essay test.

makes them think about the material, especially what

Writing-to-Learn Activities and Assignments

169

they didn’t understand, which is precisely what you

You should collect and check off journals

need to know before wrapping up a topic.

regularly or intermittently, but you need not grade

Because one-minute papers are not graded, they

them. If you do, don’t weigh them very much toward

are usually anonymous. But you should collect and

the final grade. But do write comments in them to

read at least some of them to find out how well the

develop a personal dialogue with each student.

students grasped the new material. Their summaries

and questions will tell you what to review and clarify in the next class.

ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARIES

As an in-class activity or a short homework assign-

ment, students answer these questions on a specific

JOURNALS

topic in one (long) grammatical sentence: Who Did

What to Whom, How, When, Where, and Why

Students write down their intellectual and emotional

(WDWWHWWW)? The topic may be a historical

reactions to the lectures, discussions, readings, labo-event, the plot of a story or novel, or, by substituting ratories, solutions to homework problems, or other

another What for Who/Whom, a chemical reaction,

written assignments. They do this regularly at the end mechanical process, or biological phenomenon.

of each lecture, discussion, or lab or while they are This technique makes students distill, simplify,

doing their assignments outside class. Some instruc-

reorganize, synthesize, and chunk complex material

tors require just one weekly journal-writing session, into smaller, essential units that are easier to manip-either in class or as handed-in homework, on any or

ulate and remember. It is advisable that you do the

all aspects of a course. Students should have a special exercise first before assigning it and allow students notebook solely for their journal.

twice as much time as it takes you. You can collect

Journals help students keep up with the course

and comment on the summaries yourself or have your

as well as to read and listen actively. They also make students exchange them and write comments on each

students think about the material and what they are

other’s.

learning. It is best, however, to provide students with guidelines on what their journals should address. Here are some possible questions:

LEARNING LOGS

•

What is new to you about this material?

After each lecture, reading assignment, or problem

•

What did you already know?

set, students write two lists: one of the major points

•

Does any point contradict what you already knew

they understood and the other of the points they

or believed?

found unclear. Later, at regular intervals, they review

•

What patterns of reasoning (or data) does the

their learning logs to diagnose their learning strengths speaker/author offer as evidence?

and weaknesses (such as the reasons for repeated

•

How convincing do you find the speaker’s/

errors) and brainstorm ways to remedy these weak-

author’s reasoning or data?

nesses. This diagnostic process can be conducted in

•

Is there any line of reasoning that you do not

class where students can discuss their learning pitfalls follow?

and share study and problem-solving techniques.

•

Is this reasoning familiar to you from other

Learning logs serve several worthy purposes.

courses?

Students isolate and review major points presented

•

What don’t you understand?

in the course. They also identify what they aren’t

•

What questions remain in your mind?

grasping. Finally, and most important for some

170

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

students, they learn about their own learning styles

on the right side. Later, in small groups, students can and ways to enhance their learning. This technique

read and discuss each other’s various approaches and

is especially valuable in cumulative subjects in which solutions.

students do similar graded assignments on a frequent, regular basis.

Do collect and check off learning logs intermit-

DIRECTED PARAPHRASING

tently to ensure students are keeping them up. You

might grade them if they comprise a major course

In their own words, students summarize the content

assignment.

of a reading assignment, a lecture, a discussion, or a lab to a defined audience for a specific purpose. Students can pretend they are writing, for example, to layper-DIALECTICAL NOTES

sons for the purpose of public education, to public

policy makers for the purpose of social change, or to Students read and take notes on a relatively short, impracticing scientists for research purposes.

portant, self-contained passage that you select from

Because students must paraphrase material, they

course readings. On the left side of their note paper, must work to understand it in depth and internalize

they write their reactions to the text as they read it: it. Also, since they are writing to a specific audience, where they agree, where they disagree, where they

they must consider the informational, persuasive, and are unsure, where they are confused, where they have

political value of the available knowledge and

questions, and so on. At some later time, they review data—for example, what facts and arguments are

the passage and their left-side notes and write their important or irrelevant to a given audience.

reactions to these notes on the right side of the note Directed paraphrasing assignments may be ma-paper.

jor or minor, in-class or homework, graded or just

Students can take dialectical notes in class or as a

checked off. Students can also present them orally,

fairly short homework assignment. You can assign the

and the rest of the class can role-play the audience.

first part (passage reading and reactions) as homework and do the second part (reactions to reactions) in class.

Leave some time between them, however—anywhere

LETTERS, MEMOS, NOTES,

from an hour of classroom discussion to a few weeks.

AND ELECTRONIC POSTS

Dialectical notes encourage students to read a

text carefully, analyze it critically, and reevaluate their In the letters home exercise, students paraphrase in

initial reactions to it. These notes also demonstrate informal language what they are learning in a course

the nature and value of scholarly dialogue and debate.

in the form of a letter to their parents, a sibling, or a In addition, they make superb springboards for dis-friend. This technique helps students see the relation-cussion. After students get used to the exercise, you ship between course material and projects and their

might consider collecting and grading their notes.

everyday lives. It also gives them the opportunity to This technique is especially useful in courses

describe the material in their own words, and thus to that require close readings of difficult texts, such as distill, internalize, and remember the major points. Its philosophy, history, political science, religious studies, value as a preexam review exercise is obvious. Letters law, and social theory. It also adapts easily to problem should at least be collected and checked off.

solving in mathematics, economics, engineering, and

As in directed paraphrasing, you can vary the

physics. Students work the problem in mathematical

audience and purpose for letters, memos, and notes.

symbols on the left side of the paper and explain in

Students can also write each other or post messages

words what operations they are performing, and why,

on the class discussion board or blog about a certain

Writing-to-Learn Activities and Assignments

171

reading, a problem they are working on, a design

on drafts. No doubt you as the instructor can provide project, or any other assignment they may share as

the best-informed critique, but students can benefit

a team or a class. Finally, they can write real or mock from peer feedback as well, from both getting it and

letters on some course-related issue to the editor of giving it. Peer feedback not only provides students

a newspaper or magazine, a political leader, a young

with more varied, immediate, and frequent feedback

child, or a figure from the past for practice in taking than any one instructor can give, but also helps stu-the audience into consideration in their message and

dents develop communication, critical thinking, col-

writing style.

laboration, and lifelong learning skills (Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Topping, 1998).

However, the validity, reliability, and accuracy of

MOCK TESTS

peer feedback are uneven, some tainted by personal

relationships and traits (such as race) and typically too An excellent assignment for getting students to

lenient, superficial, and unfocused (Mowl & Pain, review and really think about the material before a

1995; Orsmond, Merry, & Reiling, 1996). This

test is to have them make up a test over the material.

should not be surprising, as students have loyalties to This exercise can be done in class or as homework,

one another and concerns about criticizing a fellow

either individually or in groups. However you assign

student’s work; lack the disciplinary background to

it, students should hear and discuss each other’s test know and apply professional standards, at least in

questions. The power of this exercise rests in getting lower-level courses; and give only as much feedback

students to identify what they believe to be the key

as the questions provided absolutely demand. So in

concepts and relationships in a body of material. If

answer to the question, “Is the central idea clear

they miss the mark, they will find out in class before throughout the paper?” most students will say only

the test.

yes or no and will not reference specific passages

Before giving your students this assignment,

unless told to do so.

you may want to teach them some questioning tech-

Instructors can obtain much more valid, neutral,

niques, such as Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of cognitive

useful, and detailed student peer feedback by putting operations (see Chapters Two and Fourteen). You

a different kind of item on the feedback forms.

may also find it helpful to specify the test format—so Rather than requiring an evaluation about the ade-many multiple-choice items, true-false, short answer

quacy, effectiveness, clarity, or logic of some aspect questions, essays, and so forth. With a little practice, of the work, you can ask students to identify features your students may write such good questions that

or parts of the work, as each student sees them, or

you can use them in your tests. They are motivated

give their personal reactions to the work (Nilson,

to write ones you will want to use because they

2002–2003, 2003). For example, instead of forcing

know the answers to their own questions.

a judgment with, “Does the opening paragraph

lay out a clear thesis statement for the rest of the

paper?” rephrase the question as one requiring simple DRAFTS FOR PEER FEEDBACK

identification: “What do you think is the thesis of the paper? Paraphrase it below.” Rather than asking, “Is

Prefinal drafts of written work—essays, lab reports,

the title of the paper interesting, appropriate, and

proposals, papers, and the like—that will be turned

sufficiently focused?” solicit instead students’ personal in later for formal grading fall into a gray category reaction: “What three adjectives would you use

that we might call “writing-to-learn-to-write-better”

to describe the title of the paper?” Rather than

assignments. Just like professionals, students improve requesting an evaluation such as, “How well written

their writing in response to well-informed feedback

is the paper?” give students this innocuous task:

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

“Highlight any passages you had to read more than

MULTIPLE PURPOSES

once to understand what the writer was saying.”

The revised questions are emotionally neutral

Writing-to-learn exercises offer unmatched versatil-

and require only basic rhetorical knowledge to an-

ity. Not only do they help students process content,

swer, yet they demand close attention to the work

clarify their thinking, and remember their learning,

and often references to its particulars. They do not

but they can also induce students to pay closer atten-allow students to give biased, uninformed, or super-

tion in class, do the readings, and think carefully about ficial feedback. Rather, the responses they solicit tell the material. In addition, they can give you valuable the writer how readers have understood and reacted

insights into your students’ learning. So we will re-

to the paper and what they got out of it. If most of the visit these exercises, perhaps under different names, in readers did not identify the intended thesis, the writer later chapters (Twenty-Three and Twenty-Eight) that

knows she must strengthen and clarify the thesis state-focus on some of these multiple purposes.

ment. If she didn’t like the way her readers described We are not finished with the topic of student

her title, she knows she should change it. If they high-writing either. Chapter Twenty-Four will help you

lighted several passages as hard to read, she knows

teach your students formal modes of writing that con-

she needs to work on rewriting those sections. With

form to the rhetorical and stylistic conventions of

peer feedback, students find a genuine audience—a

your discipline.

role instructors cannot play—and they can come to

care about how and what they communicate (Nilson,

2002–2003, 2003).

P A R T 4

MORE TOOLS

Teaching Real-World

Problem Solving

C H A P T E R 18

Inquiry-Guided Learning

Inquiry-guidedlearningalsogoesbythenames through this entire process might take two terms, inquiry-based learning, inquiry learning, and guided Hudspith and Jenkins openly admit. After all, it

inquiry. In addition, it has several definitions in will take months for students to explore a subject

the literature that are not entirely consistent with each thoroughly enough to come up with decent research

other. In Chapter Eleven, it was defined very gener-

questions and narrow their inquiry to one central

ally as “students learning or applying material in order question. In addition, the instructor must develop

to meet a challenge, such as to answer a question,

and facilitate many training sessions on a list of

conduct an experiment, or interpret data” so as to

essential topics and skills: understanding the inquiry accommodate the range of more specific definitions.

process itself, developing researchable questions,

anticipating answers, conducting types of research

(library, Internet, interviewing), assessing evidence, DEFINITIONS OF INQUIRY-GUIDED

and writing up or presenting the results.

LEARNING

The definition forwarded by Lee, Green,

Odom, Schechter, and Slatta (2004) describes a

According to Hudspith and Jenkins (2001), inquiry-

similar process that starts with students formulating guided learning is “a self-directed, question-driven search good questions and following the scientific method

for understanding” (p. 9). More specifically, they ex-to answer them. They add that the good questions

plain it as a process that begins with students explor-are likely to lack a single right answer. But the

ing a subject for research, then identifying a central authors also have a very open view of inquiry-guided

research question, developing a research strategy

learning, as they see it happening within the interac-guided by anticipated results, and finally answering

tive lecture, discussion, group work, and every other the central question with the results. Guiding students student-active teaching method listed in Table 11.1.

175

176

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

In at least some of these situations, however, students of higher-order thinking. Some forms of it may

are likely to be furnished with questions.

even spur cognitive development by introducing

Prince and Felder (2007) do not see students de-

students to multiple perspectives on a problem

veloping questions as a necessary part of the process.

and the uncertainty that arises in choosing among

Quite the contrary, inquiry-guided learning involves

solutions. Compared to lecture-based instruction,

giving students a challenge, such as a question, a hy-it does a much better job of fostering students’

pothesis, or simply data to interpret, and they learn academic achievement and improving their critical

whatever they must to meet that challenge, which

thinking, problem-solving, and laboratory skills

may or may not go beyond the course material. The

(McCreary, Golde, & Koeske, 2006; Oliver-Hoyo

inquiry may have a very narrow scope—for instance,

& Allen, 2005; Oliver-Hoyo, Allen, & Anderson, one question that a segment of the lecture raises—or

2004). In addition, engagement in inquiry-guided

a very broad one entailing a major term project based activities is related to a student’s perceived gains in on outside research. Prince and Felder also consider

science and technology understanding, intellectual

inquiry-guided learning an umbrella for several ma-

development, and vocational preparation (Hu, Kuh,

jor methods—the case method, problem-based learn-

& Li, 2008; Justice et al., 2007; Pascarella & Teren-ing, discovery learning, project-based learning, and

zini, 2005). To be fair, however, it has a negative

just-in-time-teaching (JiTT)—all of which they call

effect on perceived gains in general education and

inductive teaching. These methods all launch the learn-personal development, and its positive impacts

ing process with a realistic, problematic situation and fade as we move from high-performance to low-require that students research and assemble facts, data, performance students (Hu et al., 2008).

and concepts to resolve it.

Like every other teaching method, the benefits

For purposes here, we will use Prince and

of inquiry-guided learning depend on its imple-

Felder’s definition of inquiry-guided learning and

mentation. To be effective, students must have

view the five methods they list as close variations of sufficient guidance and scaffolding through the

it. The first two, the case method and problem-based

inquiry process—that is, explicit directions about

learning, merit their own chapters (Nineteen and

what to do and how to do it, assuming they are

Twenty) in this book, as they are complex, well re-

dealing with new material. In fact, an overwhelming

searched, and widely used across the disciplines. The amount of research documents this need, as well as

remaining three—discovery learning, project-based

the failure of minimally guided, problem-centered

learning, and JiTT—require less explanation and are

instruction, commonly called discovery learning (Aulls, treated within this chapter.

2002; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Moreno, 2004; National

Survey of Student Engagement, 2007). In other

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

words, constructivism has its limits. Students are

INQUIRY-GUIDED LEARNING

unlikely to discover the basic principles of science by following the investigative techniques of professional However you define inquiry-guided learning, its

researchers. However, the greater the students’

inductive nature makes it a powerful learning

background knowledge in the subject matter, the

method (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). It

less guidance they need (Kirschner et al., 2006; Kyle, typically involves acquisition and comprehension of

1980). With a solid knowledge base, they can start

knowledge, analysis of data, evaluation of evidence,

thinking more like experts. They are better able to

application of findings to a situation or problem,

identify key characteristics of a problem as well as

and synthesis of one or more resolutions. In short,

the procedures and algorithms to solve it, thereby

it requires that students engage in multiple modes

drawing on “internal guidance” (Kirschner et al.,

Inquiry-Guided Learning

177

2006). Acquiring this knowledge base may require

•

A phenomenon: Does it exist? If so, to what

somewhat more conventional learning strategies.

magnitude? What are its causes? What are its

To make up for a weak or incomplete com-

effects? Examples: black holes, bone cancer, dual

mand of basic knowledge, the literature endorses two

coding, election fraud, plate tectonics, near-death

forms of guidance. The first form is worked examples, experiences, a change in the violent crime rate.

which serve as models of problem-solving schemata

•

The absence of an expected phenomenon: What pre-for students. They illustrate the procedures and logic vents (prevented) it from happening? Examples:

for approaching and working through problems (Chi,

acceptance of evolutionary theory in the curric-

Glaser, & Rees, 1982). When students can follow

ula of many K–12 school systems, the worldwide

a model, they have enough working memory avail-

population explosion forecasted in the 1960s, a

able for processing these procedures and the reason-

certain nation’s economic collapse.

ing behind them. Without worked examples, they

•

A perceived relationship: Does it exist? To what have to divert much of their working memory to

searching their long-term memory for possible strate-

extent? To what extent is it causal or spurious?

gies (Kirschner et al., 2006). Numerous studies from

Examples: the links between education and

the 1980s and 1990s show that students learn more

income, religiosity and political affiliation, global when they can study worked examples before tack-warming and human activity, diet and cancer,

ling comparable problems on their own (Kirschner

capital punishment and violent crime rates.

et al., 2006).

•

A controversy: What underlies it? Examples: Why The second form of guidance is process work-do scientists disagree about the cause of the Great

sheets. These lay out a proven sequence of problem-

Extinction? Why do physicians disagree about the

solving steps for students to follow, sometimes with

role the mind plays in healing? Why do some peo-

hints and rules of thumbs. With this structure,

ple believe that tax cuts on dividends and interest

students don’t rush headlong into problems without

stimulate the economy and others do not?

first identifying the useful information they do and

•

A theory: How well grounded is it in fact or don’t have, classifying the problem, visualizing it (in observation? How well does it explain and predict

mathematics, the physical sciences, and engineering), a phenomenon? How is it related to one or more

and performing whatever other steps are prescribed

other theories? Examples: evolutionary biology,

for reasoning through the type of problem. As a

the “great man” theory of history, the big bang

result, students display improved task performance

theory, functionalism/pluralism versus conflict

(Nadolski, Kirschner, & van Merriënboer, 2005).

theory/elitism, the theory that Alzheimer’s disease

Chapter Twenty-One recommends teaching students

a stepwise schema for solving mathematical problems.

is caused by amyloid plaque buildup in the brain.

•

A complex concept: What is its meaning? How well grounded is it in fact or observation? Examples:

OBJECTS AND MODES OF INQUIRY

addiction, dark matter, genetic marker, construc-

tivism, cultural drift.

What might students inquire about? Unless you have

•

A process: How does it work? Examples: How

the course time to let them explore a new subject

does lupus undermine the immune system?

and frame research questions, you will have to supply How does economic development lower birth

the object of their inquiry. The following are cate-

rates? How does the U.S. Census Bureau deter-

gories of objects that apply to many disciplines, as well mine what to ask and how to ask it on the census

as possible questions to pursue (Hudspith & Jenkins, questionnaire? How do people make decisions

2001):

about purchasing a house?

178

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

A solution to a problem: How can a given problem All of these modes are as useful for the social

be solved? Examples: How can we reduce the in-

sciences as they are for the physical and biological sci-cidence of AIDS on the African continent? How

ences. Even those involving physical equipment may

can we determine whether modern Homo sapiens

apply to psychology, and data-analytical software may has any Neanderthal DNA?

be considered a type of equipment.

•

A course of action: How sound or desirable is Inquiry-guided learning is not only for the sci-it? Examples: producing genetically engineered

ences, however. Perhaps the most varied examples of

foods, setting the legal drinking age at twenty-

this method’s implementation appear in Lee’s edited

one, allowing electronic machine voting without

volume (2004), which showcases the teaching schol-

a paper trail, the U.S. invasion of Iraq, instituting arship of North Carolina State University faculty. In charter schools to spur improvement in the public

addition to inquiry-based courses in food science,

school system, allowing private corporations to

microbiology, physics, paper science and engineering, oversee health care, charging illegal immigrant

forestry, and psychology, you can read about such

children in-state college tuition

courses in history, design, music appreciation, French culture and civilization, and Spanish language. In

Another way of getting your mind around

history, for example, students do what historians do: inquiry-guided activities, especially if you teach in evaluate and analyze primary sources, then develop

the sciences, engineering, or technical fields, is to logical arguments supporting particular historical

consider various modes of inquiry (Arons, 1993).

interpretations with evidence from their research

Students can tackle tasks such as these:

(Slatta, 2004). In Spanish for Engineers, students

research how the Spanish culture influences and

•

Observe phenomena qualitatively and interpret

informs technology, in history and today (Kennedy

what they perceive, trying to identify patterns.

& Navey-Davis, 2004). In music appreciation, they

•

Formulate concepts out of their observations.

investigate the scientific aspects of music (sound,

•

Develop and test models that reflect their obser-

acoustics, hearing, and recording technology) as well vations and concepts.

as the artistic (musical expression, interpretation,

•

Examine a new piece of equipment, and figure

meaning, and value). While the former aspects

out how it works and how it can be used.

allow experimentation and testing, the latter, lacking

•

Use a new piece of equipment to make measure-

universally agreed-on standards, permit students to

ments, analyze the data, and present the results.

develop and defend their own reasoned judgments

•

Distinguish explicitly between what they have ob-

(Kramer & Arnold, 2004). Across the disciplines, stu-served and what they are inferring in interpreting

dents have the opportunity to learn inductively and

the results of observations and experiments.

critically think their way to their own conclusions.

•

Answer probing questions about a given research

study, such as, “How do we know . . . ?” “Why do we think . . . ?” and “How strong is the evidence VARIATIONS OF INQUIRY-BASED

for . . . ?”

LEARNING

•

Ask and answer “What will happen if . . . ?” questions (called hypothetical-deductive reasoning) about We already examined discovery learning and had

an experiment or other type of research study. If

to conclude from the research that this minimally

possible, students can follow up by proposing hy-

guided, highly constructivist version of inquiry works potheses and testing them in an experiment that

most effectively for students who already have solid

they themselves design.

background knowledge and are prepared to practice

Inquiry-Guided Learning

179

quasi-professional research methods. So let’s turn to Project-Based Learning

JiTT and project-based learning.

This method comprises a major assignment in which

students, often in teams, design or create some-

JiTT

thing, such as a piece of equipment, a product or

As a complement to their reading assignments, stu-

architectural design, a computer code, a multimedia

dents receive conceptual questions on these readings, presentation, an artistic or literary work, a website, or usually multiple choice, shortly before each class

a research study involving the collection, analysis, and through the course management system. (Because

presentation of real data. Service-learning projects

this material has not yet been discussed in class,

fall within this category as well. To complete their

JiTT is considered inductive.) The instructor then

project, students may draw solely on course material

designs or adjusts his plan for the upcoming class

or supplement it with outside research.

based on students’ answers. The goal is to address and Compared to more conventional methods,

challenge students’ misconceptions on the subject

project-based learning leads to greater improvement

matter before they become further ingrained and

in students’ conceptual understanding, problem-

inhibit learning of new material.

solving skills, and attitudes about learning, and

The research on this method attests to its

their performance on content-focused tests is the

learning effectiveness. Novak, Patterson, Gavrin, and same or better (Mills & Treagust, 2003; Thomas,

Christian (1999) credited it with reducing attrition

2000). However, a major project shifts students’

by 40 percent and raising students’ normalized gains

out-of-class time away from the standard course

on the Force Concept Inventory by 35 to 40 percent

content to specialized subject matter, so their

in physics courses that were previously lecture based.

mastery of the fundamentals often suffers (Mills

A study on a large introductory biology course found

& Treagust, 2003). In addition, any collaborative comparable and additional benefits to JiTT: higher

problems students encounter on their teams can have

normalized pretest-posttest gains and lower attrition, high-stakes repercussions that can result in profound plus improved student preparation, study habits, and

dissatisfaction.

class participation (Marrs & Novak, 2004). Research in general chemistry and organic chemistry courses

also documented higher student achievement and

Other Techniques

engagement due to JiTT (Slunt & Giancarlo, 2004).

The next two chapters go into much further de-

Some instructors are discouraged from trying

tail on two more complex and more commonly

JiTT because they have to prepare conceptual ques-

used inquiry-guided techniques: the case method and

tions on all the readings. However, these items are

problem-based learning. In fact, the case method

the same type as those used in the interactive lecture, dates back to the late 1800s, and problem-based

and some disciplines, especially the sciences, already learning is at least a few decades old. Both predate

have dedicated websites with many conceptual mul-

the coining of the terms inquiry-based learning, inquiry tiple choice questions for collegial use (see Chapter learning, and guided inquiry and have a great deal of Twelve).

research documenting their strengths and challenges.

C H A P T E R 19

The Case Method

Inthiscomplexworldfullofdauntingchallenges, that are quite well structuredbut lack an obvious students must learn how to solve problems.

or clear resolution. Cases are usually printed, but

Different disciplines focus on different types of

some are available dramatized on videotape. Those

problems, and different types of problems call for

in Web-based learning objects may add the dramatic

different teaching methods. Both the case method

realism of interactivity. If canned cases do not suit and problem-based learning (in the next chapter)

your instructional purposes, you can always write

help students learn how to solve open-ended, high-

your own at no cost but your time. Anyone with

uncertainty problems that have multiple respectable

a bit of storytelling flair should find case writing

solutions—some better than others, however. These

an entertaining activity. To guide you in writing or

two methods are variants of inquiry-guided learning

selecting cases, this chapter identifies the qualities of and are relevant to any discipline with real-world

a good case and describes the many types of cases.

application. Chapter Twenty-One suggests ways

to help students reason their way through closed-

ended, quantitative problems, as are common in

THE EFFECTIVENESS

mathematics, physics, engineering, economics, and

OF THE CASE METHOD

accounting. Chapter Twenty-Two examines how

you can construct laboratories to teach students the

Aside from the fact that students enjoy the case me-

real process of scientific problem solving.

thod, good cases are rich educational tools for a host The case method exposes students to proble-of reasons:

matic, real-world situations and challenges them to

apply course knowledge to analyze the issues and

•

They require students’ active engagement in and

formulate workable solutions. It is based on real or

use of the material (Sharkey, Overmann, & Flash,

realistic stories that present problems or dilemmas

2007).

181

182

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

They help make up for students’ lack of real-world

story’s key role), the present tense (happening now), experience.

and extended stages (see below). But the second

•

They accustom students to solving problems

person and the present tense don’t belong in a

within uncertain, risk-laden environments, thus

case taken from reality. No matter how they are

promoting cognitive development from the

written, cases only approach the experiential (see

dualistic mode of thinking to informed judgments

Chapter Fifteen) because students don’t act them

about the best approaches and solutions to difficult

out. However, the last type described in this chapter, problems (Fasko, 2003; Levin, 1997; Lundeberg,

sequential-interactive, begins to blur the distinction.

Levin, & Harrington, 1999).

•

They foster higher-level critical thinking and cog-

nitive skills such as application, analysis, synthesis, THE APPROPRIATE

and evaluation, all of which come into play in the

SUBJECT MATTER

process of thinking through and developing solu-

tions to a case (Dinan, 2002; Gabel, 1999; Habron

The case method accommodates all subjects and

& Dann, 2002).

courses that have a context for application or use.

•

They raise awareness of the ethical side of deci-

This is why professional schools have adopted it as a sions (Lundeberg et al., 2002).

central instructional method. Business and law did

•

They demand both inductive and deductive

so decades ago; in fact, the Harvard Business School

thinking, compensating for higher education’s

built a whole curriculum and publishing company

focus on the latter.

around it. Medicine, nursing, clinical psychology,

•

They serve as excellent writing assignments, paper

educational administration, and pastoral studies

topics, and essay questions, as well as springboards

followed. Many engineering specialties have also

for discussion, review, and team activities.

discovered cases.

•

They increase class attendance (Lundeberg & Ya-

The case method is broadly used in many arts

dav, 2006a, 2006b).

and science fields as well, to a greater or lesser degree:

•

They improve both the students’ perceptions of

music history (Chiaramonte, 1994), philosophy

and confidence in their learning, as well as the fac-

(ethics), economics (macro, legal aspects), political ulty attitudes about teaching (Lundeberg & Yadav, science (policy analysis, public administration, consti-2006a, 2006b; Sharkey et al., 2007).

tutional law), sociology (social problems, criminology,

•

They enhance students’ achievement of their

organizations), psychology (clinical, abnormal, orga-

learning outcomes in their instructors’ eyes

nizational behavior), biology (resource management,

(Lundeberg & Yadav, 2006a, 2006b; Rybarczyk,

ecology, paleontology), and scientific methods in

Baines, McVey, Thompson, & Wilkins, 2007).

general (research study design and implementation

to test a given hypothesis). If you teach any of the

On the student-involvement continuum from

sciences, you can choose from a huge collection of

didactic methods (lecture) on the low end to

well-tested cases at this University of Buffalo website: experiential methods (role plays, simulations, and

http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case service-learning, for example) on the high end, the

.html.

case method falls somewhere in the middle, depend-

Faculty and teaching assistant development has

ing on the case. The more it resembles a simulation,

also embraced the method. It uses cases portraying

the more experiential the learning. A case more

problems that instructors may encounter with classes

closely approximates a simulation when it is written

and individual students—for example, challenges

in the second person (placing the student in the

to authority, hostile reactions to sensitive material,

The Case Method

183

accusations of discrimination, grading and academic

Risk

honesty disputes, and difficulties implementing new

The decisions students make must have some impor-

techniques.

tance, even if it is only hypothetical—for example,

a character’s employment, health, or life; an organi-

zation’s survival or success; a country’s welfare; the WHAT MAKES A GOOD CASE

loss of a legal case; or social justice or public security.

Something valuable must be at stake.

A good case may be written in the second or third

person and in the present or past tense, and it may be TYPES OF CASES

almost any length. What is important is that it have

the following qualities.

A good case may range from brief to very long. Bullet cases make one teaching point in just two or three Realism

sentences. They serve as good small-group discus-

Real or hypothetical, a case should depict a currently sion topics and short essay questions. Minicases are a relevant situation with which students can empathize

tightly focused paragraph or two; if dramatized in a

or identify. Realism is further enhanced by technical minute or two, they are called vignettes. They gener-detail, character development, historical context, and ate more discussion and analysis than do bullet cases.

extension over time or a decision-making process (see You can easily modify either type by confining the

the next section).

possible solutions to four or five reasonable options, much like a multiple-choice question. Then students

must identify and justify their selection of the best Opportunities for Synthesis

solution (Waterman & Stanley, 2005). On the other Cases should require students to draw on accumulated

extreme are cases that go on for pages. The hundreds

knowledge of the subject matter to analyze the prob-

of management and business administration cases that

lems and formulate solutions. Without some review

the Harvard Business School publishes range from a

built into the situations, students may forget to apply couple to over forty pages.

the basics in real decision-making situations in their Most cases represent a one-time snapshot of a

careers.

situation and occupy students for fifteen to twenty

minutes, a class period or two, or a single homework

assignment. But some cases can extend into a con-

Uncertainty

tinuing story or shift directions according to student Although some solutions will be better than others, a decisions.

case should offer room for multiple solutions and valid The former type, a continuous case, tells an debate. Several solutions may be viable, but you may

unfolding story in segments over real or condensed

have students select just one course of action and jus-time. As real-life situations usually evolve and

tify their choice. Or you may ask them to rank-order

change over time, this structure adds realism. For

their solutions. The uncertainty surrounding the so-

instance, some faculty development cases describe

lutions may be due to uncertainty in the knowledge

an instructor’s shifting relationship with a class over base (a trait of all bodies of knowledge), informa-a term, with each minichapter presenting different

tion missing in the case (as is often true in reality), issues to consider. Some medical and nursing cases

or the genuine validity of different approaches to the follow the progression of a disease or a pregnancy in problem.

a hypothetical patient.

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

The latter type, a s equential-interactive case, leads focus attention on the relative importance or like-students through a process of narrowing down

lihood of a cause. The case method is extremely

their solutions or decisions by providing additional

flexible.

information as the students request it. Like those on DVD, these cases approach the experiential realism

of a simulation. They cast students in the key

DEBRIEFING CASES

decision-making role throughout, requiring that at

least their minds act it out. Here is an outline of how For cases to function well as homework assignments,

you can structure such a case across subject matter,

paper topics, essay exam questions, or discussion

with the medical or clinical variant in parentheses:

springboards, you must guide students through a

productive debriefing. That is, you have to challenge 1. Students study a case giving limited information

them with good questions about the case—questions

on the nature or root cause of a problem. First,

that engage them in application, analysis, and syn-

they brainstorm all interpretations or causes (diag-

thesis of the material, plus critical evaluation of their noses) and their solutions (treatment plans). Then

proposed interpretations and solutions. Brainstorm,

they rank-order the interpretations or causes (di-

focal, and playground questions admirably serve these agnoses) according to the ease and feasibility for

purposes (see Chapter Fourteen).

verifying or eliminating them (ease and safety of

The simplest formula for debriefing a case is

testing).

problems-remedies-prevention, that is: “What are

2. Students request specific additional information,

the problems?” “What are the solutions?” and if appli-beginning with what they have ranked as the eas-

cable, “How could these problems have been pre-

iest and most feasible to obtain (easiest and safest

vented?” The structure for sequential-interactive

to test), to help them narrow down the possible

cases given follows this basic formula.

interpretations or causes (diagnoses).

While the problems and solutions are the es-

3. You provide the information they request in turn.

sential issues, you might ask other questions to direct (You should have additional information in hand

students back to the course material to find answers.

for any likely request.)

Cases that you debrief following a list a questions

4. Students again rank-order the possible interpre-

are called directed (Waterman & Stanley, 2005). Good tations or causes (diagnoses) in light of the new

cases often contain other matters and important

information and repeat step 2.

details well worth students’ consideration—for

5. You repeat step 3.

example: possible reasons behind a character’s action 6. Students select the most likely one or two inter-or inaction; reasons that such action or inaction fails pretations or causes (diagnoses) and their solutions

to solve or even worsens a problem; the impact of

(treatment plans).

the historical context, the organizational culture, or financial constraints; or how the situation might play Depending on the subject matter and the

out if one ingredient were different. Providing your

problem, you may also want to include the ease and

questions in writing will keep the debriefing focused feasibility of implementing a solution (treatment plan) on the key points.

as a rank-ordering criterion. After all, if students iden-You can launch a case discussion with the entire

tify widespread poverty as the root cause of a problem, class (see Chapters Thirteen or Fourteen) or have stu-they may not be able to develop a workable, action-

dents discuss a case in groups (see Chapter Sixteen).

oriented solution. Alternatively, you may wish to

Using groups offers still more options:

The Case Method

185

•

All groups can work on the same case with the

A POSTSCRIPT FOR PIONEERS

proviso that each group reach a consensus on its

answers (otherwise majority rules). This format

If the case method is rarely, if ever, used in your field works well only with cases that can generate

but you can see a place for it in your course, realize widely different interpretations.

that trying it poses very little risk. It is a tried-and-

•

All groups can work on the same case, but with

true method in many fields, and course evaluations

each group addressing different questions.

show that students find it both highly instructive and

•

After a general class discussion identifying the

enjoyable. The key is in the quality of the case. You problems in the case, half the groups address

might show drafts of your own creations to colleagues solutions and the other half preventions.

before using them in class. Remember too that you

•

Each group works on a different case and presents

can continue to improve your cases over time.

a descriptive summary and debriefing to the rest

of the class.

C H A P T E R 20

Problem-Based Learning

Both the case method and problem-based method is: the social sciences,psychology,history, learning (PBL) present students with real-philosophy, business, law, educational administration, world, human-situational, open-ended, high-medicine, nursing, clinical fields, the biological and uncertainty, and risky challenges with multiple

physical sciences, engineering—any discipline or pro-

respectable solutions, some being better than others.

fession that presents unclear and uncertain challenges.

However, PBL problems tend to be messier and

fuzzier, and the course material alone cannot provide viable solutions. So students must do outside research, HOW PBL WORKS

which usually makes the problem-solving process a

sizable project best conducted by teams of at least

PBL tends to leave students more or less on their

four (Duch, Groh, & Allen, 2001).

own to research their problem and devise solutions

The McMaster University Medical School in

to it. But they can and should follow this series of

Ontario, Canada, introduced PBL in the late 1960s

steps (Amador, Miles, & Peters, 2006; Bridges, 1992; to move medical education away from straight lecture

Duch, Allen, & White, 1997–1998; Edens, 2000):

and memorization tests and toward actual practice.

Medical students worked in groups with a precept to

1. Team members review the problem, which is

discuss, research, and diagnose hypothetical medical

typically ill structured, and clarify the meaning

cases. From the 1970s on, PBL spread to several

of terms they do not understand.

dozen North American medical schools (Jonas, Etzel,

2. They analyze and define the problem. (You may

& Barzansky, 1989; Kaufmann, 1985; Kaufmann

provide guidance.)

et al., 1989; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). But it 3. They identify and organize the knowledge they

is applicable in all the same subject areas that the case already have to solve the problem. This may also

187

188

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

mean identifying and ignoring extraneous infor-

personnel selection committee members, with one

mation given in the problem.

acting as project leader, another as facilitator, another 4. They identify the new knowledge they need

as recorder, and the rest as members. He also incorpo-to acquire to solve the problem—the learning

rates specific role plays and mini-simulations, such as issues.

conferences, interviews, field observations, in-basket 5. They organize and rank-order the learning issues

exercises, and progress presentations.

and set objectives for outside research. (You may

PBL’s experiential realism is grounded not only

or may not provide references.)

in the problems, activities, and (sometimes) roles, but 6. They divide the work among themselves.

also in time factors. A project may be designed to

7. They conduct the assigned research individually

proceed in real time. In a multistage rollout problem, by agreed-on deadlines.

the challenge may unfold over time as you supply stu-

8. They continue to meet to share research findings

dents with pieces of additional information (Duch et

and conduct additional research as needed.

al., 2001). Solving one problem can entail weeks of

9. They merge their newly acquired and previous

research and group meetings in and out of class. In

knowledge into what they consider to be the best

fact, a substantial problem can absorb most of a term.

possible solution. (This step qualifies PBL as a

But you can find or design problems that take only a

constructivist method.)

week or two to solve.

10. They write up or orally present their solution.

Assessment of PBL Projects

Once the instructor guides students through

Beyond balancing group and individual grading (see

the basic procedures, the teams should work as inde-

Chapter Sixteen), you must decide in advance the

pendently as possible. Each devises its own internal

specific criteria on which you will grade the prod-

organization and decision-making rules for evalu-

uct and set bottom-line standards for various grades

ating alternative formulations of and solutions to

or point ranges. Then you must develop a rubric de-

the problem. Members integrate course materials

scribing the product for each level of quality on each with outside library, Internet, interview, survey,

criterion (see Chapter Thirty-One). You must also

documentary, or field research. Depending on the

convey those criteria and levels to your students be-

problem, the assessable product may take the form of

a lengthy memo, a report, a budget, a plan of action, fore they begin the project so they will have some

or an oral presentation to the class or a hypothetical structure within which to direct their efforts. Appro-decision-making body.

priate dimensions may include the clarity of the problem definition, the breadth of outside sources used,

the feasibility of the solution, the cost-effectiveness of Experiential Potential of PBL

the solution, the extent to which the solution resolves While PBL usually doesn’t require students to play

all aspects of the problem, and the rationales for the roles, that’s not to say that it can’t. Some elaborate solution selected.

PBL problems allow for an optional experiential di-

Because the PBL literature offers little assess-

mension, which adds an early step: the team mem-

ment guidance, grading these projects can present

bers decide on the roles they will play in a kind of

challenges. It can be difficult to give them less

open-ended simulation. Students might assume pro-

than an A because the teams are supposed to work

fessional roles, such as members of a council with

independently, so you don’t monitor your students as

varying political interests to be taken into account. In carefully as you might with other teaching methods.

the lengthy educational administration problem that

Another potential complication stems from the high

Bridges (1992) developed, students take the role of

degree of student engagement. Grading down a

Problem-Based Learning

189

project can touch emotional nerves unless you can

to conduct outside research on topics like blood

clearly justify your assessments.

DNA, DNA research methods, and genetic testing.

Once the teams complete their task, they explain

their solutions to the class, which then engages in

GOOD PBL PROBLEMS AND WHERE

discussion to evaluate the various methods suggested.

TO FIND THEM

Many PBL problems are available in biology

(Allen & Duch, 1998; Duch & Allen, 1996; Mier-Good PBL problems and good cases have the same

son, 1998). Duch and Allen (1996) also describe

key characteristics: realism, opportunities for students one for physics. Bridges (1992) proposes ideas for

to synthesize material, uncertainty, and risk—and all educational administration problems. Edens (2000)

the better if they resemble problems that students will gives brief summaries of ten problems in biology,

experience in their careers (Duch et al., 2001). Some physics, chemistry, business, art history, educational generic workplace problems include managerial mis-leadership, medicine, and criminal justice, along

communications, low organizational morale, difficult

with their sources. Finally, you’ll find some well-

policy implementation, negative public relations, and tested problems at two University of Delaware

ethical dilemmas. In addition, a good PBL problem

websites: www.udel.edu/pbl and (after you register)

for your particular course is one that gives students https://chico.nss.udel.edu/Pbl/index.jsp. Depending

practice in the abilities that you targeted in your learn-on what knowledge is and isn’t included in your

ing outcomes and directs students to the knowledge

course materials, you may also be able to use some

you want them to acquire beyond the course material.

of the science cases at the University of Buffalo site: You can also judge the quality of problems us-http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case ing Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of cognitive operations

.html.

(see Chapter Two). A “poor” problem requires only

knowledge or comprehension, as do typical end-of-

textbook-chapter problems. A “fair” problem adds a

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PBL

story element but entails no more than application.

A “good” problem demands analysis, synthesis, and

Theoretically PBL has very strong credentials. It is

evaluation to solve. It is highly realistic, full of re-based on the well-tested principle of students learn-

searchable unknowns, and open to more than one

ing by actively doing (see Chapter One), and they

solution (Duch & Allen, 1996). Its description is usu-typically get to practice a variety of higher-order and ally much longer as well.

social skills: recording, scheduling, conducting meetHere’s a simple example. Let’s say that the

ings, discussing, prioritizing, organizing, planning, rereadings, lectures, and class activities in a biology searching, applying, analyzing, integrating, evaluating, course have familiarized students with the structure

making decisions, compromising, cooperating, per-

and function of DNA, the function of various

suading, negotiating, and resolving conflict. Beyond

enzymes involved in DNA synthesis and replication,

these basics, you decide and determine what your stu-

and radio-labeling techniques. The instructor then

dents will learn to do and what additional knowledge

gives teams this PBL problem: “A rare blood disorder

they will acquire by their research in your choice or has been identified in a particular family in Europe.

design of a problem.

[The problem describes the symptoms.] Devise the

According to the research, PBL is especially

least expensive method to determine the disorder’s

effective in developing the following abilities in stu-cause and to locate the defective gene, and suggest

dents (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993; Banta, Black,

diagnostic tests for identifying potential victims.”

& Kline, 2000; Bridges, 1992; Dochy, Segers, Van

Solving this problem presumably requires the students den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Edens, 2000; Hintz,

190

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

2005; Hung, Bailey, & Johassen, 2003; Lieux, 1996; over problem-solving hurdles (Hmelo-Silver, 2004;

Mierson & Parikh, 2000; Prince, 2004; Prince & Kirschner et al., 2006; see Chapter Eighteen).

Felder, 2006):

Studies of medical students have uncovered

performance deficits associated with PBL. While

•

Teamwork

students in a PBL curriculum offer more complex

•

Project management and leadership

explanations for their diagnoses, their explanations

•

Oral and often written communication

are less coherent and more error prone than those

•

Emotional intelligence

from more traditionally educated students (Patel,

•

Tolerance for uncertainty

Groen, & Norman, 1993). Moreover, PBL-trained

•

Critical thinking and analysis

students order more unnecessary (and costly) patient

•

Conceptual understanding

tests, spend more hours studying each day, and score

•

High-level strategies for understanding and self-

lower on basic science exams (Albanese & Mitchell, directed study

1993). As to whether they perform better in a

•

Application (transfer) of content knowledge

clinical setting, the research yields inconsistent results

•

Clinical performance (medical students)

(Kirschner et al., 2006).

•

Application of metacognitive strategies

Another unsettled question is whether PBL

•

Research and information-seeking skills

courses cover less content. Some medical education

•

Retention of knowledge

studies report that PBL courses usually cover 20 per-

•

Decision making

cent less content than more traditional ones,

•

Problem solving (of course), often across disci-

and student performance on knowledge-focused

plines

standardized tests suffers accordingly (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). But research on undergraduate PBL

In addition, PBL activates prior knowledge and

courses finds no such content or test performance loss imparts new knowledge in the context in which they

(Banta et al., 2000; Edens, 2000; Hung et al., 2003).

will later be used. In this way, it builds in enough

Even if such a loss does occur, many PBL enthusiasts

redundancy to ensure the knowledge is well under-

may not care because they value application and

stood and retained. If the problem mirrors situations research skills over content mastery (Biggs, 2003).

that students will encounter in their future occupa-

tions, PBL also develops career realism as well as skills (Bridges, 1992).

WHAT STUDENTS THINK

PBL has its weaknesses and its critics. Imple-

menting it is difficult and time-consuming, starting

Medical students and faculty prefer PBL to long

with finding the right problems to fit your course

lectures (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993), but medical or writing your own (guidelines are given at the

students tend to be mature, motivated, self-regulated end of the chapter). Given such challenges, fully

learners. Many undergraduates feel quite differently

committed and well-prepared instructors are essential about PBL, and their resistance and discomfort

to PBL’s success, and their shortage may explain the

constitute another weakness of the method. While

mixed impact of the method on medical education

students report developing skills such as problem

(Glew, 2003). In addition, when instructors don’t

solving, critical thinking, communication, and taking provide enough structure and scaffolding, PBL

responsibility, they tend to perceive they are working stumbles into the same pitfalls as discovery learning.

harder but learning less, even though test results don’t Students with weaker knowledge backgrounds may

confirm this (Banta et al., 2000; Edens, 2000; Lieux, require more just-in-time instruction to help them

1996). Many students, especially the highest achievers

Problem-Based Learning

191

and those in their first year, express frustration with your only one, as you maintain full control over your the open-endedness, complexity, and ambiguity of

students’ learning issues. These learning issues are

the problems;, the lack of task structure and guidance; what distinguish a PBL problem from a case and

and the murky standards for performance (Edens,

what push students to practice the highest levels of

2000; Lieux, 1996). Such stressful conditions can

thinking.

breed intragroup conflicts and problems.

If you want to compose your own PBL prob-

This does not mean that PBL courses neces-

lem, follow these steps (adapted from D. Johnston in

sarily get low student ratings and critical comments

Biggs, 2003):

(Kingsland, 1996; Mierson, 1998; Woods, 1996).

But instructors new to PBL may not know how

1. Identify the concepts, knowledge, and skills re-

to improvise through unexpected schedule changes

quired to propose a good solution.

or how to handle the student protests and sticky

2. Write out your student learning outcomes for the

situations that can arise. Such novices may indeed

PBL project.

suffer a temporary drop in their ratings (Lieux, 1996).

3. Find a real problem that fits your learning out-

So before you embark on PBL, evaluate how much

comes and that your students may encounter in

risk you can afford to take.

their careers or civic lives.

4. Write your problem as you would a case: in the

present tense, with specific data and a practitioner

KUDOS FOR CREATIVITY

role or multiple roles that students can assume.

5. Consider structuring your problem as an extended

When you are looking for PBL problems, start

rollout type, letting realism be your guide.

by reviewing those already published. Finding

6. Define the deliverable—for example, a decision, a

one to fit your course can be difficult. A PBL

lengthy memo, a report, a budget, a plan of action,

problem in a colleague’s course may be a case in

or a persuasive presentation—and develop a rubric

yours because your course materials and activities

for assessing student products (see Chapter Thirty-

already address the solutions. Feel free to modify

One).

published problems to your purposes, but don’t

feel constrained to use them at all. Two of the

After testing out and refining your problem

best things about college-level teaching are the

in your course, you can even publish it if you also

creativity and autonomy it allows. Just as you can

write a facilitator’s guide. Include in the guide

write your own cases tailored to your course and

the information in the steps above, and add content

student needs, you can compose your own PBL

background for facilitators and suggested resources for problems. This may be your best alternative, if not

students.

C H A P T E R 21

Quantitative Reasoning

and Problem Solving

Mathematicsisanamazingproblem-solving Inthischapter,wefirstconsiderwhystudents tool in physics, chemistry, engineering,

find quantitative reasoning so difficult and fraught

computer science, economics, finance,

with pitfalls: their weak conceptual understanding of accounting, and, of course, statistics and mathematics.

problems, their reliance on shallow plug-and-chug

One of the most difficult tasks that instructors face tactics, their poor problem-solving habits, and

in the quantitatively based fields is teaching students the common errors that result from their faulty

to be good problem solvers using mathematics.

approaches. Then we will look at minor and major

Quantitative problem solving is quite a different

changes we can make in our teaching and tutoring

matter from solving soft, uncertainty-ridden, human-

that have proven effective in developing students’

situational problems like the ones the case method

problem solving and reasoning skills.

and problem-based learning address. Mathematically

based problems may have unknowns that require

intelligent estimation, but algorithms are usually

UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS’

available to make the estimations and solve the

PROBLEMS WITH PROBLEMS

problems themselves. The big question is which

algorithms to use for a given problem. In addition,

Heller, Keith, and Anderson (1992) identify two types although this type of problem may have different

of students who are struggling with problem solv-

approaches to arriving at a solution, it usually has only ing in introductory physics. Some students claim to

one correct answer or a definable range of correct

understand the material but not to be able to work

answers. Quantitative reasoning, then, has a more

the problems. They apparently believe that mathe-

precise process and product than does qualitative

matical problem-solving skills are independent of the reasoning.

physics concepts being taught. Other students say they 193

194

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

can follow the problem examples in the text but find

materials as ideal gas problems and stoichiometry

the test problems too different and difficult. They

as well as conceptual understanding, students per-

seem to view physics as nothing more than a collec-

formed well on the math sections but demonstrated

tion of mathematical solutions. Both kinds of strug-

little comprehension of the physical chemistry behind gles may sound familiar to you.

the questions. Students picked up on a formula

Novice problem solvers of both types often

and employed the plug-and-chug tactic of selecting

make the same mistakes again and again because

the variables necessary to work a solution without

they fail to understand the problems conceptually.

understanding why they chose the variables they did.

When confronted with a problem, they try to find

In essence, they were using nothing more than an

another similar problem that either they or their

algorithm, a set of mechanical rules, to compute the

instructor has solved in the past. When they think

solution.

they have identified such a problem, they use its

The plug-and-chug approach can generate

solution as a template for solving the new problem.

additional problem-solving hurdles as well. Students

Finding a similar solved problem can facilitate solving perceive only one way to arrive at a solution, even

another, but only if the likeness rests on one or

though there may be several viable alternatives.

more key concepts or principles. Unfortunately,

They also come to expect problems to be easy; after

novices too often choose a template problem based

all, the instructor breezes through them and the

on only a superficial resemblance to the new problem

book examples seem straightforward. Unprepared

(for example, both involve falling objects). Then

for hurdles, they become discouraged by difficult

in their impatience to find a numerical solution,

problems and stop trying. Then students may

they dive into algebraic manipulations. They neither

mistakenly conclude that only a special few “meant

qualitatively analyze the situation nor systematically for” the discipline can easily work through problems

reason through and plan a strategy for solving the

(Brookhart, 1990).

problem. When they arrive at any solution, they are

Not only do most students have poor concep-

satisfied and don’t take the time to check it (Heller tual understanding of quantitative problems, but they et al., 1992; Kalman, 2007).

also bring ingrained bad habits to the problem-solving To the extent your students can get the right

process (Black & Axelson, 1991):

answers to the problems by whatever means, you

might not even notice the shallowness of their

Inaccuracy in Reading

understanding. What you may consider a problem

•

Failing to concentrate on the meaning of the

in your courses is really only an exercise, since

problem

you often give students formulas and specific ways

•

Skipping unfamiliar words

of finding solutions (Zoller, 1987). This kind of

•

Losing or forgetting one or more facts or ideas

problem-solving assignment may not help your

•

Failing to reread a difficult passage

students acquire conceptual understanding. Unless

•

Starting to work the problem before reading

the problems you assign elucidate the underlying

all of it

disciplinary principles and the quantitative reasoning process, your students may merely be going through

Inaccuracy in Thinking

the motions, repeating the problem-solving pattern

you showed them.

•

Placing speed or ease of execution above accuracy,

A study by Nurrenbern and Pickering (1987)

thus working too rapidly

demonstrates the disconnect between problem-

•

Performing a specific operation carelessly

solving facility and concept understanding. They

•

Interpreting or performing operations inconsis-

found that on a chemistry test covering such standard tently

Quantitative Reasoning and Problem Solving

195

•

Failing

to

double-check

procedures

when

inquiry process—that is, explicit directions about

uncertain

what to do and how to do it. The research recom-

•

Jumping to conclusions

mends two forms of guidance. One form, worked

examples, provides students with a problem-solving Faulty or Careless Problem Analysis

model (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982). Following a

•

Failing to break down complex problems into

logical set of procedures frees up enough of the

easily manipulated components

learners’ working memory to let them process the

•

Failing to draw on previous experience to clarify

reasoning behind the procedures. We know from

a difficult idea

numerous studies that students learn more when

•

Failing to refer to a dictionary or text glossary

they can study worked examples before trying to

when necessary

solve comparable problems on their own (Kirschner,

•

Failing to construct diagrams where appropriate

Sweller, & Clark, 2006).

So perhaps your first teaching strategy should

Lack of Perseverance

be modeling new problem-solving procedures—that

•

Losing confidence and admitting defeat too easily

is, you pose a problem to your students and show

•

Guessing or basing solutions on superficial under-

them how to work it on the board. However, the

standing

way instructors typically do it fails to capture the true

•

Using algorithms mechanically to arrive at solu-

problem-solving process. When you work a prob-

tions without giving thought to conceptual issues

lem on the board, you are only showing students

•

Failing to carry out a line of reasoning to

what experts do when they run through an exercise.

completion

You are not actually showing them how to attack a

•

Taking a one-shot approach and giving up if the

real problem, which involves quantitative reasoning. To singular attempt fails

accomplish this goal, you must model the cognitive

processes involved in genuine problem solving and

Many of these bad practices result in the com-

explicitly describe the steps and flow of your thinking.

mon errors that Bridgwood (1999) identifies:

Only then can students grasp the techniques to solv-

ing problems and appreciate what these techniques

•

Conceptual errors due to ignorance or carelessness

can do for them (Bodner, 1987).

•

Algebraic errors, especially in cancellation and

grouping

•

Arithmetic errors due to failure to check

TEACHING THE STEPS

one’s work

OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Fortunately, the research suggests strategies to

The second form of inquiry guidance that benefits

help students acquire conceptual understanding and

novice learners is process worksheets—that is, an opti-overcome their faulty problem-solving approaches

mal sequence of problem-solving steps for students

and bad habits.

to follow, supplemented by hints and rules of

thumbs when available. This reasoning structure

improves students’ problem-solving performance

MODELING EXPERT REASONING

by making them carefully examine and recast

problems in conceptual terms, thus preventing them

Recall from Chapter Eighteen on inquiry-based

from rushing headlong into misdirected calcula-

learning that novice learners grappling with new

tions (Nadolski, Kirschner, & van Merriënboer,

material need guidance and scaffolding through the

2005). The literature endorses teaching students a

196

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

tried-and-true method for tackling and solving

(step 4) to review their intuitive understanding of each problems that is adaptable to any quantitatively

concept (Pauk, 2001).

based discipline (Bodner, 1987; Bridgwood, 1999;

Heller et al., 1992; Kalman, 2007; Samples, 1994;

Schoenfeld, 1985). The heart of the approach

TUTORING STUDENTS OUT

is to make students follow a five-step strategy that

OF BAD HABITS

requires them to translate the problem systematically into different representations, each more abstract and Helping your students to identify and overcome poor

more mathematically detailed than the last:

problem-solving practices and avoid common errors

is best done during office hours on a one-on-one or

Step 1: Visualize the problem. Sketch or diagram the small-group basis following this strategy (Black & Ax-main parts of the problem. Identify the known and

elson, 1991). First, have your students read a problem unknown quantities and other constraints. Restate the aloud and specify what is needed to solve it. Then

question in different terms to make it more under-

let them try solving it on their own, insisting that

standable.

they think through the problem out loud. Talking to

Step 2: Describe in writing the principles and concepts at themselves makes them slow down and improves ac-work in the problem. Then translate the diagram into curacy and explicitness. As they attack and proceed

symbolic terms, and symbolically represent the target through the problem, pose questions that make them

variable.

examine their reasoning:

Step 3: Plan a solution. Identify the equations neces-

•

What do you know about the problem?

sary to solve the problem and work backward from

•

What are some possible ways to go about

the target variable to see if enough information is

solving it?

available to arrive at a solution.

•

How can you break the problem into smaller

Step 4: Execute the plan. Plug in the appropriate steps?

numerical values for the variables, and compute a so-

•

How did you go from step 1 to step 2?

lution.

•

What is your reasoning for this step?

Step 5: Check and evaluate your solution. Is the solu-

•

What are you thinking at this point in the process?

tion complete? Are the proper units used? Is the sign correct? Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable?

The idea is to help students become aware of

their problem-solving pitfalls and replace them with

Bridgwood (1999) surveyed his electrical engi-

more thoughtful metacognitive strategies. So keep

neering undergraduates on how helpful they found

the spotlight on the students. If you must model

his similar problem-solving strategy, and they assessed problem-solving procedures, do so sparingly and only

most of the steps as valuable and the overall strategy to demonstrate the reasoning process, not how to get

as well worth using in the future.

the answer to any specific problem.

Some students may profit from incorporating a

few more steps: reading the problem at least twice,

preferably aloud, before trying to restate it (step 1); ROUTINIZING PEER FEEDBACK

thinking about the relationships among the differ-

ent pieces of information given before describing the In the mid-1990s, one engineering department in the

relevant principles and concepts (step 2); if the comUnited Kingdom faced a tough challenge with its

plexity of the numbers in the problem is getting in

mandatory second-year engineering course. Section

the way, substituting simpler numbers before planning class size doubled over a short period of time, allow-the solution (step 3); and pausing while computing

ing students to get away with coming unprepared and

Quantitative Reasoning and Problem Solving

197

making grading weekly homework unfeasible. As a

real world and actually care about. So they incorpo-

result, the average course grade plummeted by 45

rate the motivation to understand the problem, per-

percent and the failure rate soared. In response, the form the calculations, and find a solution. (One such engineering faculty reinstituted homework problems

problem involves planning a skateboard stunt, another but with student peers doing the assessing and grad-deciding whether to fight a traffic ticket.) These probing. Six times during the term, students completed

lems may also have additional characteristics:

and submitted required problem sheets, which were

then randomly redistributed to other students, along

•

They may not refer specifically to the unknown

with grading directions. During the lecture period,

variable.

students graded the problem sheets, adding written

•

They may include irrelevant information not

comments. While these homework grades did not

needed to solve the problem.

count toward the final grade, not handing in the prob-

•

They may require students to supply missing in-

lems would lead to failing the course (Gibbs, 1999).

formation from common knowledge or educated

This innovation alone raised the average final

guessing.

exam grade from 45 to 75 percent and reduced the

•

They do not specifically mention the reasonable

failure rate to zero. These stunning results make sense assumptions that may be necessary to reach a

when you consider the learning ramifications of this

workable solution.

peer feedback structure. Rather than cramming, stu-

dents have to practice solving problems fairly evenly during the course. They receive prompt feedback on

USING THE POWER OF

their homework because by the end of the same class

GROUP LEARNING

period, they submit it. By grading their peers’ prob-

lems, they see other, perhaps better, problem-solving Context-rich problems are designed to be difficult—

approaches. Coming from their peers, the feedback

too difficult for most students to generate satisfac-

they get has greater impact and may motivate them

tory answers working on their own. Thus, Heller

to try harder and do better. Finally, they practice

and Hollabaugh (1992) recommend cooperative

evaluation skills, which should help them internalize problem-solving groups to spread the thinking and

quality control standards (Gibbs, 1999).

reasoning load over several students. Group learning

Peer assessment accommodates large classes

forces students to discuss the physical principles

that lack an adequate teaching assistant staff. In the behind the problems and possible strategies to reach

engineering case, the faculty had to sacrifice the

a solution. Because students talk out their different better part of six lectures, but the grading could be ideas and evaluate alternative approaches, they acquire assigned as homework. While this change would

individual problem-solving skills in the process.

slow the turnaround time to a day or two, the other

To identify the most successful group ar-

benefits would still accrue.

rangement and structure, Heller and her associates

experimented with different group compositions,

including random, homogeneous, and heteroge-

MAKING PROBLEMS MORE REAL

neous on various variables. Initially they assembled

AND CHALLENGING

the groups randomly. Then after the first exam,

they reconstituted the groups based on abilities,

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) devised the idea of

teaming together students of high, medium, and

context-rich problems in physics as part of their approach low abilities, as the cooperative learning literature to promote good problem-solving skills. These prob-advises (see Chapter Sixteen). Generally students

lems are short stories about real objects and realistic in these heterogeneous ability groups developed

events, more like those that students encounter in the their problem-solving skills as fully as did the

198

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

homogeneous high-ability groups in previous ex-

compatible with traditional settings. So is teaching

periments. The optimal group size proved to be

students the five-step strategy of problem solving

three, with members rotating among the roles of

and insisting that they follow and display it in any

manager, skeptic, and checker/recorder. Pairs lacked

homework or in-class problems they hand in. The

the critical mass to arrive at more than one or two

interactive lecture (see Chapter Twelve) provides an

strategies and were more easily sidetracked onto a

excellent forum for giving students practice in ap-

fruitless path. On the other hand, groups of four

plying the strategy. You can enforce their continuing or more gave some members the opportunity to

use of it by instituting peer assessment of homework

freeload on other members’ reasoning. In addition,

problems.

same-sex groups or groups composed of two females

Tutoring struggling students during your office

and one male worked best, avoiding the dominance

hours is traditionally part of the faculty role, but

posturing of more than one male in a group (Heller

confronting them with questions instead of answers

& Hollabaugh, 1992). Chapter Sixteen gives more

teaches them to think through a problem and monitor

information on cooperative learning research results

their reasoning before moving toward a solution.

and setup methods.

If you have the resources to make more substan-

Heller et al. (1992) also found that the students

tial course modifications, find or devise concept-rich in their experimental program developed higher

problems in your field and turn your class into a “stu-problem-solving expertise than those taught in the

dio” in which carefully assembled student triads solve regular lecture and discussion section format with

these problems, with you playing the consultant’s role.

assignments of standard physics problems. They

Such real-world problems furnish more interesting,

concluded that problem-solving groups working on

meaningful, and challenging contexts for students to

context-rich problems offer a preferable alternative

apply and hone their skills, and the group format

to the traditional approach (confirming Treisman,

makes the reasoning processes explicit, generates mul-1986). With students relying on each other to resolve tiple problem-solving approaches, and weans students

their concerns and questions immediately as they

away from the mechanical application of algorithms.

arise, groups also free you to circulate and help the Even if you cannot replicate the learning environment students in genuine need.

that Heller and her associates created, you may still be able to organize group problem solving during discussion/recitation sections and review/help sessions.

ACCOMMODATING NEW METHODS

At the very least, move away from the all-too-

TO TRADITIONAL SETTINGS

standard procedure of letting students passively watch you mechanically solve problems and effortlessly

To teach quantitative reasoning and problem solv-

model idealized solutions without explaining the

ing effectively, you need not completely overhaul

deep reasoning behind what you are doing. Use

your classroom or tutor every student individually.

some class time to let your students tackle problems

Students do learn problem solving by doing, but

so you can find out how they approach and solve, or

they don’t learn it by doing it wrong, and very few

fail to solve, them. Perhaps you can have them display deduce the real process of problem solving on their

their solutions on the board or project them from a

own. This is where modeling comes in, as long as

tablet PC, then explain their reasoning to the rest of you explicate your conceptual-level reasoning. This

the class. Students can work individually or in ad hoc common

method

of

instruction

is

perfectly

pairs or triads, as long as they are doing the work.

C H A P T E R 22

Problem Solving in the Sciences

Whilethischapteriswrittenforeveryone problemsthatthesciencesaddress.Thesedisciplines who teaches a science at the college

have their own unique brand of problems, strategies

level, it addresses two frequently distinct

for solving them, and ways for teaching those

audiences: the science faculty and science laboratory strategies.

instructors, who are often graduate teaching assis-

Most real everyday science involves solving

tants. Only in small colleges do faculty members

problems in a laboratory, even if the data are collected ordinarily design and conduct the labs that support

and partially analyzed in the field. If lab work is

the lecture part of their course. But dividing the

so central to science, it should also be in science

chapter into two sections, one for faculty and the

education. It should imitate the reality of scientific other for teaching assistants (TAs), makes little sense.

methodology in the lab—that is, devising hypothesis-

Even if TAs conduct the lab, it is the faculty who

testing strategies and procedures using reasoning and have the power to redesign the labs and define and

trial-and-error—on the way to solving the content

uphold lab safety standards. While the TAs have

problem—that is, meeting the experimental objec-

little control over the lab agenda and none over the

tives with valid and reliable findings.

broader course, most of them will soon occupy a

Since the early 1990s, a different kind of

position of such control and responsibility for their problem solving has been moving into the lecture.

students’ learning.

The challenges may be case studies, problem-based

The physical and life sciences, along with their

learning activities, or realistic quantitative word

applied progeny such as engineering and the health

problems, like the context-rich variety mentioned in

sciences, use every inquiry-based, problem-solving

Chapter Twenty-One. (Recall that these short, real-

teaching method we have examined: the case

world cases may include irrelevant information, may

method, problem-based learning, and quantitative

require students to draw on common knowledge and

reasoning. Even so, these don’t cover all the types of make reasonable assumptions, and may not specify

199

200

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

the unknown variable.) They can be substantive

easy to manage, especially with large classes. The

problems, from a conceptual multiple-choice item

instructor exercises total control while the students used during an interactive lecture break to a lengthier merely (one hopes) listen. The lecture has its appro-guided inquiry to reveal content that was previously

priate uses, but it is not digestible as a steady diet. In delivered in a lecture.

physics courses that serve it exclusively, students take In this chapter, we review both the lecture-away no more than 30 percent of the key concepts,

based and the lab-based innovations that are bringing on average, that they didn’t already know at the

tremendous excitement and success to the field of

beginning of the course (Hake, 1998). As Chapter

science education, but not before we look at the

Twelve explains, lecturing much beyond fifteen

failures of traditionally taught science courses, which minutes pushes students’ ability to process and retain are still the norm in North America.

the material and becomes counterproductive. And

even fifteen minutes of new science seems to overtax

learners’ working memories. A series of in-class

WHERE SCIENCE EDUCATION

experiments revealed that only 10 percent of the

FALLS SHORT

students could recall a nonobvious fact and illustration of it just fifteen minutes after the professor shared Thanks to two classic works, Tobias (1990) and

them (Wieman, 2007).

Seymour and Hewitt (1997), we know quite a bit

In addition, the lecture does a relatively poor job

about why so many students come to dislike, lose

of teaching students how to do something, such as

interest in, and switch out of the sciences, as well as writing, speaking, reasoning, thinking critically, for-mathematics and engineering. At the top of the list is mulating a hypothesis, solving a problem, or designing poor teaching, manifested as faculty with a weed-out

and conducting an experiment. Since science com-

mentality about their courses, poor communication

bines mental and physical activities, the lecture is not and public speaking skills, attitudes of indifference well suited to a lot of it. It is especially ill suited to or even condescension toward students, little under-strongly kinesthetic learners, who are often attracted standing of how students learn, and lessons that lack to science and its professional offshoots (for example, application and illustration—all exacerbated by too

the medical and engineering fields). These learners

much material being crammed into too little time

benefit most from physically acting out or perform-

(Seymour & Hewitt). Other influential turn-offs are ing the lessons and then identifying the concepts and the heavy reliance on lecture, the emphasis on factual principles inductively (see Chapter Twenty-Five). In

memorization in both teaching and assessment, the

short, they learn best by working in the lab or the

predominance of mechanical “how” over more

field or otherwise solving problems.

meaningful “why” explanations, the need for quan-

Finally, while an excellent lecture can be very

titative operations, and the focus on technique—all

motivating, a standard one rarely helps students un-

at the expense of theory, creativity, interconnected

derstand and appreciate the sense of discovery that

concepts, and discussion (Tobias).

makes science so stimulating and rewarding.

Although science engages in the discovery and

The laboratory that typically accompanies

identification of facts, it is not just a mountain of large lectures also fails to capture the excitement of factoids. Yet undergraduate science education often

getting results from a experiment or making a break-

gives that impression. The reason probably lies with

through on a problem. All too often, labs are treated science’s predominant teaching method: the lecture.

like second-class, tacked-on learning experiences

It is usually the instructor’s technique of choice be-at best—poorly coordinated with the readings and

cause it maximizes the amount of factual information

lectures, hampered by a shortage of functioning

that can be conveyed. It also feels comfortable and

equipment, shunted off on poorly paid graduate

Problem Solving in the Sciences

201

students, and dulled by cookbook procedures leading

general and core concepts and propositions from

to predictable answers that haven’t been of scientific the condition-specific and derivative ones, a hier-interest for decades. In this kind of setting, students archy reduces the need to memorize while making

are lucky to achieve the comprehension and appli-

long-term storage, retrieval, and appropriate appli-

cation learning outcomes that even traditional labs

cation of knowledge much easier (Hanson, 2006;

are capable of fostering. Students rightfully come to Wieman, 2007).

regard such labs as tedious, irrelevant tasks to hurry Third, we need to do whatever we can to reduce

through, get done, and forget.

the heavy cognitive load that learning science imposes on students. Teaching them the hierarchical structure of the discipline’s knowledge helps accomplish this

HOW TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN

purpose, but we can also show them how to recog-

SCIENCE: GENERAL ADVICE

nize patterns across concepts, principles, and problems and how to chunk knowledge into categories based

Before we examine the revolutionary develop-

on such patterns (Hanson, 2006; Wieman, 2007).

ments in science lectures and labs, let’s introduce

After showing them, we should give them practice in

some general principles that should guide science

these mental operations—preferably in small groups

education.

to start. Another way of reducing cognitive load

First and foremost, instructors have to an-

is to supplement the verbal delivery of knowledge

ticipate and address any misconceptions about the

with visuals—diagrams, figures, flowcharts, concept

subject matter that students bring into the classroom.

maps, and the like—and to have students draw their

These misconceptions are particularly prevalent

own whenever possible (Hanson, 2006; Wieman,

in the sciences because the layperson’s intuitive

2007). Not only do graphics package information

understandings of natural phenomena are so often

more efficiently and succinctly than do words, but

wrong. As explained in Chapter One, instructors

by their very nature, they also display an organization have to discredit students’ faulty conceptions of

of knowledge. In fact, visuals facilitate learning in how the world works while making the scientific

such powerful ways that they merit an entire chapter

explanations more plausible and persuasive and

(Twenty-Six), so we will leave detailed explanations

equally comprehensible (Posner, Strike, Hewson,

for later.

& Gertzog, 1982). Only after students adopt the

One final principle to facilitate science edu-

expert’s paradigm can they learn the discipline at a

cation—in fact, learning in any discipline—is to

deep, meaningful level, filling in the paradigm with

more specific scientific concepts and principles.

encourage metacognition. That is, students need to

Second, students need help filling in the

acquire the expert’s habit of monitoring their own

paradigm—that is, acquiring the discipline’s hier-

thinking, of honestly assessing how deeply they un-

archical mental structure of knowledge (Hanson,

derstand the material (Hanson, 2006; Wieman, 2007).

2006; Reif & Heller, 1982; Royer, Cisero, & Carlo, Some teaching techniques build in the process of self-1993; Wieman, 2007). They are not likely to see this

monitoring—for example, group problem solving of

hierarchical organization unless we tell them about

context-rich problems, collaborative inquiry-guided

it explicitly. After all, it took us years to develop learning, and stepwise problem-solving procedures

it in our own minds because, most likely, no one

that require students to represent the problem visually told us about it when we were in school. Why not

and check the answer for plausibility. When working

alleviate our students’ struggle and quicken their

on a challenging, nonroutine task, group members

learning by showing them how experts structure

often raise questions that serve to assess each other’s their vast knowledge? By distinguishing the more

understanding.

202

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

HOW THE LECTURE CAN BE MADE

(see Chapters Nineteen and Twenty). Another

INTO A MEANINGFUL LEARNING

moderate change is adding just-in-time-teaching to

EXPERIENCE

lectures, as research finds it reduces attrition, raises standardized test scores, and improves student preparation (Marrs & Novak, 2004; Novak, Patterson,

An enormous amount of research on science educa-

Gavrin, & Christian, 1999; see Chapter Eighteen).

tion all leads to the same conclusion: inquiry-guided, Yet another relatively modest enhancement is to

problem-focused, and collaborative, alternative teach-incorporate experimental demonstrations into the

ing strategies are more effective that traditional

lectures. These may be online interactive simulations lecture. That is, students who learn by these newer

that double as virtual labs (Wieman, 2007; see the

approaches leave their science course with better

URLs below for sources) or live experiments (not

skills in higher-order thinking, problem solving,

requiring data collection) that the instructor conducts and experimental design (Beichner et al., 2007;

in front of the class using lab equipment or a com-

Burrowes, 2003; Cortright, Collins, & DiCarlo,

puter. Students become involved when they not only

2005; Freeman et al., 2007; Giuliodori, Lujan, &

watch but also discuss what they have observed and

DiCarlo, 2006; Hanson, 2006; Hanson & Wolfskill,

interpret the results. In the course of the discussion, 2000; Jones-Wilson, 2005; Knight & Wood, 2005;

the instructor explains the concepts and principles

Lewis & Lewis, 2005; Lord, 1997; McCreary, Golde,-

illustrated and the real-life applications. With the

& Koeske, 2006; Oliver-Hoyo & Allen, 2005; Oliver-students having time to discuss the experiment,

Hoyo, Allen, & Anderson, 2004; Oliver-Hoyo &

this teaching method is called an interactive lecture Beichner, 2004; Prince & Felder, 2007; Schroeder, demonstration (Sokoloff & Thornton, 1997, 2001).

Scott, Tolson, Huang, & Lee, 2007; Wieman, 2007;

If you are teaching a lecture course with

Wilke, 2003; Wilke & Straits, 2001) and stronger

recitation sessions, you may be able to make those

conceptual understanding of the content (Crouch & sessions inquiry guided, problem focused, and collab-Mazur, 2001; Hanson, 2006; Jones-Wilson, 2005;

orative by modeling them on Tutorials in Introductory Oliver-Hoyo & Beichner, 2004; Wieman, 2007).

Physics (McDermott & Shaffer, 2002). In this format, Furthermore, these gains come with no loss in

student groups answer conceptual questions on a

content coverage (Jones-Wilson, 2005) or students’

worksheet while the instructor or TA rotates around

content mastery, whether the class is small or large

the groups asking them Socratic questions. On

(Cortright, Collins, & DiCarlo, 2005; Lord, 1997, occasion, students work with a few simple laboratory

1999; Wilke & Straits, 2001).

items, but the activity is usually paper and pencil.

These alternative strategies vary from relatively

Compared to traditional recitation sessions, the

small changes, such as interspersing conceptual

tutorials increase students’ learning gains by over

multiple-choice questions throughout the lecture

50 percent (Reddish, Saul, & Steinberg, 1997). In lieu and having individual students and then groups

of worksheets, you can bring context-rich problems

choose the right answer (Crouch & Mazur, 2001;

into these sessions. They can be developed for any sci-see Chapter Twelve), to complete course redesigns,

ence or engineering field, and they foster high-level such as combining lecture, recitation, and laboratory problem-solving skills (Heller & Hollabaugh, 1992).

into a “studio course” (Laws, 1991). Among the

The most encompassing transformations in

minor changes, Wieman (2007) uses clickers in

science education go under the acronyms of POGIL,

implementing Mazur’s peer instruction. In addition,

which stands for process-oriented guided inquiry

case studies and problem-based learning scenarios,

learning, and SCALE-UP, short for student-centered

which abound in the sciences, can easily fit into

active learning environment for undergraduate

existing courses as in-class activities or homework

programs. While the instructor may lecture during

Problem Solving in the Sciences

203

some class meetings or give minilectures at the

Bear in mind that SCALE-UP requires some

beginning of each class meeting, both innovations

serious investments in new facilities. Short of con-

entail replacing some lecture periods with hands-on,

structing new buildings, institutions must tear out

small-group activities, such as answering critical

some of their lecture halls and replace them with

thinking questions, developing concepts, or inquiry-

large, one-level, “computer-smart” classrooms. These

guided problem solving. Since SCALE-UP places

rooms must be furnished with wireless service and

three students around one or more laptops, these

large round tables, each with nine movable chairs and triads may also engage in computer-based simulations

electrical outlets. In addition, either the students or or hypothesis-testing labs. SCALE-UP instructors

the institution have to purchase laptops—at least one call the activities “tangibles” and “ponderables”

for each student triad (Beichner et al., 2007). Class (Beichner et al., 2007). While the students are

sizes must decrease, as a lecture hall that once held working, the instructor and TAs circulate around

over two hundred students may accommodate only

the class posing Socratic questions. Near the end

ninety in the SCALE-UP format.

of the class, at least some of the groups make oral

reports, and all turn in written ones or completed

worksheets (Beichner et al., 2007; Hanson, 2006). In

HOW THE LAB CAN BE MADE INTO

other words, much of the traditional lecture time is

A MEANINGFUL LEARNING

reallocated to small-group tutorials, similar to those EXPERIENCE

described for introductory physics. But the classes

may be many times the size of a recitation section.

All the evidence indicates that traditional lab designs Both POGIL, which started in chemistry

and manuals are outmoded, ineffective, and ripe for

courses, and SCALE-UP, which was introduced in

replacement with inquiry-guided labs.

physics, have proved highly successful in promoting

student learning. Compared to traditional lecturing

and, in one case, interactive lecturing, POGIL

The Beginning of a Lab

has been found to increase student interest in the

Recall that science defectors cite a lack of theory and subject matter, raise student ratings of the instructor conceptual links as reasons for leaving. When the

and the course, improve learning skills and test

lab is disembodied from concepts, it lacks meaning

performance, and reduce the D-F-W (drop, fail,

and relevance. So it is critical to place it in the

withdraw) rate—all to statistically significant degrees.

bigger scientific picture before proceeding into

In addition, students prefer POGIL to traditional

the actual activities. Given the time constraints of

lecturing and deem the activities challenging and

many lab activities, you may be tempted to forgo

valuable for their learning (Hanson & Wolfskill, 2000; explaining the objectives to be achieved or the

Lewis & Lewis, 2005). SCALE-UP has achieved

principles to be illustrated and simply launch into the similar significant results: students display enhanced day’s work with a brief synopsis of the procedures.

conceptual understanding, better problem-solving

While this short-cutting gets students out of the

skills, higher test scores, and more favorable attitudes lab more quickly—which they usually appreciate,

toward the discipline (Beichner et al., 2007; Oliver-

especially in traditional labs—it robs the lab of its Hoya & Beichner, 2004). Not surprisingly, POGIL

educational value. And it isn’t necessary because you and SCALE-UP have spread to other disciplines. For

can introduce the objectives or principles efficiently the sciences and engineering, plenty of appropriate

while simultaneously preparing students to perform

inquiry-guide activities are available on the Web.

the day’s tasks.

You may start with the sites listed at the end of the Begin a lab by asking students to review the

next section.

previous week’s material. You might have them do

204

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

a two-minute freewrite to activate their memory

professional setting. In many cases, each lab group

(see Chapter Seventeen). After you ask a couple

turns in one report and shares a group grade.

of students to read their responses aloud, tie this

(In Kimmel’s labs, students also keep their own

particular lab to the course’s progression of topics and individual lab notebook, which is graded.) In

labs, sketching as cohesive a big picture as possible.

addition to sharing their discoveries, results, and

Then introduce the day’s objectives or principles,

conclusions, students may even exchange their lab

eliciting the lab manual information, such as the

reports for peer review (Odom, 2002).

hypotheses to be tested or questions to be answered,

•

They feature modern technology, such as indus-

from the students.

try equipment in current use and updated software

(for example, spreadsheet, databases, statistical, and The Design of the Lab Itself

mathematical) for analyzing the data and display-

ing the results.

In many science courses across the continent, labora-

tories have been completely revamped to incorporate

For clarification, here is an example of an actual

these characteristics (Felder & Brent, 2001; Howard inquiry-based lab: a pendulum lab in a sophomore-

& Miskowski, 2005; Hufford, 1991; Kimmel, 2002;

level calculus-based physics course (Odom, 2002).

Laws, 1991; Odom, 2002; Penick & Crow, 1989;

First, students use their laptops to access the lab

Reddish, 2003; Reddish & Steinberg, 1999; Sokoloff manual on the Web. The manual gives a background

& Thornton, 1997):

lesson in the basic mechanics of a pendulum,

including the equation to describe its period and

•

They reflect the inquiry-guided learning model—

the simplified version for small angle approximations that is, they have students learn or apply material

(first-order expression). Students then receive the

to meet some kind of a challenge, such as to

two lab objectives or outcomes:

answer questions, solve problems, conduct an

experiment, or interpret data. In one way or

1. Determine the maximum angle for which the pe-

another, students conduct real scientific investiga-

riod of a simple pendulum is valid. In other words,

tions, identifying and solving problems the way

ascertain the cutoff angle for when the small angle

scientists actually do, only with the instructor’s

approximation fails.

guidance. They must develop their own strategy

2. Use a simple pendulum to determine the value of

to test a hypothesis or find answers, along with

g, the acceleration due to the earth’s gravity.

the procedures to carry it out. The lab manual

provides neither, and the lab results are not

Each lab group is supplied with equipment: a

predictable.

pendulum stand, clamp, string, and bob (an aluminum

•

They focus on developing students’ critical

rod with its center of gravity marked); a protractor; a thinking, decision making, and complex rea-computer timing device (on the lab Web page); and

soning skills, including inductive thinking, by

meter sticks (located around the classroom). In addi-

giving students opportunities to practice them. In

tion, groups receive ten “nudge” questions to answer

addition to developing an experimental strategy

and a lab report template (on the Web page) with

and procedures, they must devise one or more

five problems to solve—all of which lead the students explanations for unexpected results and write

through the process of meeting the lab objectives.

them in their lab reports.

They receive no other directions (Odom, 2002). This

•

They foster genuine teamwork and collaboration.

lab requires about six hours over two weeks. Odom

Since the labs are novel and challenging, students

also got rid of the three-hour-a-week-lab restriction mutually need each other, as they would in a

that constrains most science curricula.

Problem Solving in the Sciences

205

Innovations such as Odom’s are not isolated.

lecture-based classes supplemented by student-active

Developed by Sokoloff and Thornton (1997), real-

tutorials (Reddish, 2003; Reddish & Steinberg,

time physics labs begin with phenomena and lead

1999; Wittmann, 2001). However, the students’

students to derive the principles inductively. It relies perceptions of the curriculum’s effectiveness depend

on the power of small groups answering challenging

heavily on how well their teams function (Reddish

questions and performing nonroutine tasks with the

& Steinberg, 1999).

assistance of a floating instructor or TA. Typically

A rich source of inquiry-guided labs, as well

students receive most or all of the data they need

as POGIL, SCALE-UP, and tutorial activities, is the

electronically, along with analysis tools, so they focus Web. You can find numerous learning objects in the

less on collecting data and more on interpreting

forms of virtual labs, field trips, problem scenarios, them. Workshop physics involves an entire curricu-and simulations for all the science and engineering

lum that eliminates the lecture entirely in favor of six fields:

hours a week of inquiry-guided labs (Laws, 1991).

The results of these experimental programs have

Physics: http://phet.colorado.edu (Wieman, 2007)

been so positive that the hosting institutions have

Chemistry: www.chemcollective.org/find.php

adopted them into their regular curriculum. Students

(Prince & Felder, 2007)

actually discuss and even argue about the best plan

of attack, and they divide the labor on their own.

Biology: www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/vlabs; http://

Compared to students in courses with the traditional

highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316

cookbook labs, they hand in higher-quality lab re-

/student view0/online labs.html;

www.biologylab

ports, do significantly better on the tests, have higher sonline.com; http://bio.rutgers.edu; www.phschool

final grades, give the course higher evaluations, and

.com/science/biology place/labbench

enjoy the labs more (Felder & Brent, 2001; Howard Zoology: www.abdn.ac.uk/∼clt011/zoology

& Miskowski, 2005; Hufford, 1991; Kimmel, 2002;

/virtuallaboratory

Luckie, Maleszewski, Loznak, & Krha, 2004; Odom,

Geology: www.sciencecourseware.org/eecindex.php

2002; Penick & Crow, 1989). In addition, they make greater improvements in scientific reasoning (Benford Geography: www.abdn.ac.uk/∼clt011/geography

& Lawson, 2001), as well as other higher-order

/virtualfieldtrip

thinking skills, such as data analysis and interpretation Engineering: www.jhu.edu/∼virtlab/virtlab.html;

(Howard & Miskowski, 2005). They retain the lab

http://virlab.virginia.edu/VL/contents.htm;

material longer too (Lord & Orkwiszewski, 2006;

http://matdl.org/virtuallabs/index.php/Main Page

Luckie et al., 2004). In Kimmel’s labs, the C students Multidisciplinary sites: www.seed.slb.com/science

show the greatest gains in achievement. In addition,

sectionlanding.aspx?id=26652; www.merlot.org

the students’ attitudes in his new labs are better

than those in the old. Specifically, students are more motivated and more engaged, they perceive they

are learning more in the course and the labs, and

THE ESSENTIALS OF LAB SAFETY

they assess their team functioning more favorably

AND MANAGEMENT

(Kimmel, 2002).

In the workshop physics curriculum, in par-

Unless all your labs are primarily virtual or paper-

ticular, students score significantly greater gains on and-pencil problem solving, safety should be your

the Force Concept Inventory and the Force Motion

first priority. With so little lab experience, undergrad-Conceptual Evaluation than those in traditional

uates tend to be careless and unaware of the dangers, physics classes and measurably greater than those in

so you must inform them of hazards and safety

206

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

measures. They need explicit instructions on proper

to have input into their lab grade.) You may have

procedures, especially when working under poten-

to schedule some time at the beginning of lab

tially hazardous conditions. For example, if certain

for a brief accountability activity, such as a quiz,

chemicals require special handling or disposal pro-

writing exercise, or brief recitation period, but

tocols, you must explain the reason in terms that

this will take you less time than going over the

students can understand. For visual and kinesthetic

directions in the manual.

learners, you should demonstrate as well as describe

•

Discuss procedures thoroughly. You can be redun-

the proper construction and handling of apparatus.

dant where safety is concerned.

As the most experienced scientist in the room, you

•

Be especially aware—and continually remind

must also be able to act promptly and effectively

students—of any particularly dangerous proce-

in an emergency. Know the standard procedures

dures.

practiced by your department and your field. If you

•

Demonstrate proper techniques and correct stu-

are unsure of how to proceed in any given situation,

dents when necessary.

ask a(nother) faculty member, a lab staff member, or

•

Encourage student questions.

the departmental safety officer.

•

Move around the lab. While you can’t be

everywhere at once, be readily available for

Preventing Lab Emergencies

consultation.

The generic guidelines below apply across the sci-

entific disciplines. Your particular field may call for Responding to Medical Emergencies

additional rules:

If you now or ever will supervise a lab, the chances are good that you will face a lab emergency during your

•

Be prepared. Rehearse new or unfamiliar proce-

career. With some procedural knowledge and prepa-

dures before the lab. Be able to identify pitfalls and ration, you should be able to handle most situations.

problems. If students sense you don’t know what

In the event of a lab accident, rule number one is

you are doing, they will say so on your teaching

to remain calm. Make sure you know the location

evaluations.

of the first-aid kit, fire extinguishers, fire blankets,

•

Direct students to keep the lab as clean as possible.

emergency showers and eye washes, bleach solutions,

Not only is this good practice for them, but it also

and hazardous waste cleanup kits. Familiarize yourself reduces the prep staff’s workload.

with the uses of each so that your emergency response

•

Give students dress codes, and show them how

will be swift and decisive. Learn first-aid principles, to use safety equipment such as goggles and face

preferably by completing first-aid and CPR certifica-

shields. Then explain the reasons for the rules, and

tion training courses, whether or not your institution enforce them. Typical clothing codes include long

requires it. At the very least, study a first-aid man-pants, tied-back hair, shoes with tops, no exces-

ual such as the one published by the American Red

sively loose clothing, and no encumbering jewelry.

Cross.

•

If your lab has a traditional manual with directions

If a student is injured in your lab, stop to assess

and procedures, you must make your students

the situation, and then take proper action. Small cuts read the manual carefully before coming to lab.

and scrapes may be inconsequential, requiring noth-

The better informed students are, the smoother

ing more than a bandage. But today due to AIDS, it

and safer the conduct of the lab. Chapter Twenty-

is best to treat all injuries involving loss of blood as Three offers dozens of ways to induce students

hazardous situations. So do not touch a student who

to do the readings when they are due. (You need

is bleeding unless you are wearing protective gloves.

Problem Solving in the Sciences

207

Isolate the blood spill area, and immediately swab the WHY SCIENCE EDUCATION

surface twice with at least a 10 percent bleach so-

IS SO IMPORTANT

lution. Label biohazardous materials accordingly and

dispose of properly in accordance with your insti-

We are forever hearing that our nation is falling be-

tution’s standards. Contact the student or employee

hind other countries in scientific literacy at all grade health center for more information on AIDS and how

levels and that we are facing a shortage of scientists.

to protect yourself.

At least so far, international scientists have been filling Here is a brief quiz presenting several typical lab

in the openings for scientists and science professors in emergencies that will help you assess your own and

the United States, but for how long?

your lab TAs’ emergency preparedness. How would

If these reasons to improve science education

you or your TA respond to emergencies like these?

aren’t pressing enough, then consider the broader

place of science in our country. In a truly enlight-

•

A student tries to force a glass rod into a rub-

ened, democratic society, people must be scientifically ber stopper. The rod breaks, driving the sharp end

literate—not only conversant in but also comfortable

into the palm of his hand.

with science. Everyone who teaches in the sciences

•

A student wearing a loose sweater is working

and its applied offshoots plays a crucial role in

with a Bunsen burner. As she turns away from

fostering a society that is well informed enough to

the burner, her sleeve catches fire.

govern itself intelligently. Self-government requires

•

A student spills 12 M HCl on his hand.

not only a well-informed populace but also one that

•

A student tips over a boiling water bath, scalding

can solve its own problems. Problem solving of every

his feet.

type—open-ended and closed-ended, qualitative

•

During an experiment, a student goes into respi-

and quantitative, high-uncertainty and formulaic—is

ratory arrest.

science’s stock-in-trade. This fact alone makes science

•

A student is shocked while plugging an electrical

an essential component of higher education. But we

cord into a wall socket.

have to ensure that students learn how science really

•

A student splashes a large quantity of a corrosive

proceeds—not like a well-ordered textbook but in

chemical into her eye.

a zigzag, trial-and-error, collaborative manner that

•

A student’s error releases a massive quantity of

demands complex reasoning, strategic thinking, and

bromine gas in the lab.

inventiveness.

P A R T 5

MAKING LEARNING

EASIER

C H A P T E R 23

Getting Students to Do the Readings

Somefacultysaythattheydon’thavethelux- doing the readings. Unfortunately, not doing the ury of managing engaging activities in class

readings impedes students’ learning of the material

because so many of their students don’t do the

on a deep level (Fernald, 2004).

readings. These faculty are correct in maintaining that In this chapter, we dispassionately examine why

you cannot run a student-active classroom unless your students don’t do the readings. Students have their

students do the assigned readings on time. Their first reasons, right or wrong, for blowing off the assign-exposure to the material must be on their own out-

ments, but we often make it easy for them to so. In

side class because if they come to class unfamiliar with fact, we can take measures to encourage them to do

the material, they can’t do anything with it. In fact, the readings—to make it easier for them to get value

many students seem not to crack a book until right

from their readings—while making it more difficult

before an exam, by which time many class periods

or costly for them to ignore the readings. In other

have been dulled by too many “emergency” lectures

words, we can better equip them and induce them

and too little student participation.

to do the readings. The tools suggested here may not

Where these faculty may err is in assuming that

work on every student, but they will on most. After

just assigning reading should be motivation enough

all, students have a right to fail themselves.

for the students to do them. This may have been the

case at one time, but not anymore. Estimated from

their performance on pop quizzes, about 80 percent

WHY STUDENTS DON’T DO

of the students normally did the readings in 1981,

THE READINGS

but only 20 percent of them did in 1997 (Burchfield

& Sappington, 2000). No doubt some faculty also

Consider all the reasons that students may habitu-

err in believing that their students will learn just as ally not do the readings—at least not when they are

effectively from listening to their lectures as from

due. Don’t worry about the student who occasionally

211

212

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

doesn’t do the readings because of some short-term

vocabulary, which slows their reading speed, impedes

life interference, and eliminate those who overburden their comprehension, and discourages them from fur-themselves by trying to combine a full course load

ther reading (Maleki & Heerman, 1992). So when

with more than half-time employment.

faced with a reading assignment, many students feel it takes too much time or it’s not worth what little they Poor Reading Abilities, Habits,

get out of it.

and Persistence

Higher-Priority Activities

Just short of half the high school graduates in the

United States do not have the reading skills that

Students may also have more compelling or more

college-level work requires (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh,

attractive options for their nonclass time. We can

Whitt, & Associates, 2005). In fact, only 32 percent easily understand their obligations to their jobs,

of these graduates are college ready by the most

their family, other possibly more important courses,

minimal yardstick, which means having completed

and community service arrangements. However,

the basic college-required courses and having basic

we have to accept the fact they may prioritize

literacy skills (Greene & Forster, 2003)—obviously an socializing (virtual, phone, or face-to-face), fraternity inadequate definition of “college ready.” According

and sorority activities, playing sports and games,

to the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy,

watching television, listening to music, surfing the

relatively few students achieve reading proficiency by Web, drinking, sleeping, working out, reading a

the end of their higher education—in prose literacy,

novel or magazine, doing more interesting course

only 19 percent of those with a two-year degree and

work, or engaging in extracurricular activities such as clubs and hobbies. Some of these activities mix well

31 percent of those with four-year degrees, and in

(for example, socializing, drinking, and watching

document literacy, only 16 percent and 25 percent,

television), making the combination all the more

respectively (Kutner et al., 2007).

appealing. When you think about it, our courses

Whether as a cause or a result, many students

have a lot of stiff competition for their time.

don’t seem to enjoy reading, at least not for learn-

ing purposes, and do very little of it—much less than earlier students used to. Only 22 percent of seventeen-No Perceived Need

year olds in the United States read daily in 2004—a

Many college students never or rarely did the readings drop from 31 percent in 1994—and only half of those

in middle and high school—and did very well, thank

eighteen to twenty-four years old read a book of any

you (Blue, 2003). In fact, two-thirds of the entering kind in 2002 (Hallet, 2005). In terms of voluntary

first-year students in fall 2003 claimed to have spent reading, those fifteen to twenty-four years old did just less than six hours a week doing homework in their

seven minutes of it on weekdays and ten minutes of it senior year in high school, and almost half of these

on Saturdays and Sunday in 2006, while they watched

students graduated from high school with an A

two to two-and-a-half hours of television every day

average (Higher Education Research Institute, 2004).

(National Endowment for the Arts, 2007).

Furthermore, 70 percent of all students entering

One problem that gets in the way of students’

college in 2003 rated their academic ability above

reading comprehension and speed is their inability

average or within the top 10 percent of their age

to focus for more than a few minutes (Blue, 2003).

group (Higher Education Research Institute, 2004).

They may not realize that reading is not an eye ac-

Since people base their expectations of the present

tivity but rather a mind activity, and a very engross-on the past, many students believe that they shouldn’t ing one that demands concentrated attention. With

have to work any harder in college than they did in

limited reading experience, they lack a sophisticated high school, and they see themselves as intelligent

Getting Students to Do the Readings

213

enough to slide thorough their college courses.

readers become poor students who become poorly

Clearly they consider reading tangential to their

paid workers, and good readers become good

learning (Bradley, 2007).

students who become better-paid workers.

Furthermore, students assess their short-term

When you examine all the possible reasons that

need to do the readings on time. If they don’t have

students habitually don’t do the reading, they boil

to hand in any homework on the readings, won’t

down to three: (1) they don’t want to (due to poor

be quizzed on the material in class, and won’t have

reading skills or compared to other activities), (2) they to publicly discuss the material, most of them will

don’t think they have to, and (3) they really don’t

skip the readings (Nathan, 2005). Students also have

have to—that is, they face no dire consequences if

fall-back strategies. They think they can skip the

they don’t.

readings because they figure they will pick up the gist of them during the next class, especially if you

normally lecture. Or their friends will tell them about HOW WE CAN EQUIP AND INDUCE

the class. Or they will go to you to get lecture notes.

STUDENTS TO DO THE READINGS

Or they can read your notes on the course website.

Of course, the wisdom of these strategies depends

Let’s accept the fact that most students approach

mostly on the instructor.

the assigned readings with a somewhat cavalier and

pragmatic attitude, combined with varying degrees

No Perceived Payoff

of anxiety and dread. To address this negative posture, we have to see the issue from their point of view

Today students are practical instrumentalists. They

given their life circumstances. In particular, we have view college as a means to an end—the end being

to avoid projecting our identities and values onto

a high-paying job that can support their consumer

them. When we were in college, most of us ranked

habits. This is particularly true of millennials (see among the best students, or we wouldn’t have made

Chapter One), but the somewhat older Generation

it into and through graduate school and into the

Xers share with them the demand for course

academy. We exceeded the average in our reading

material of immediate relevance and utility. Neither

abilities and persistence, our enjoyment of the activity, generation received the quality K–12 education that

the importance we attach to it, the learning benefits taught them to appreciate learning for its own sake,

we derive from it, our interest in at least some

apply themselves to academic pursuits, or defer their subjects, and our raw intelligence. At the same time, gratification for a longer-term purpose. Therefore,

we probably weren’t perfect students ourselves. No

they tend to view the assignments, readings, and tests doubt we cut some corners, skipped some readings,

as barriers in their path on their way to a degree and spent some nights cramming, and prioritized certain

college in general as a game about grades. In their

extracurricular activities over some of our courses.

minds, the readings have nothing to do with their

And we were gifted enough to get away with it.

aspirations in life or their definition of success. So Here we are years later, happily wedded to

they are not worth the time and effort, and students

our fields and expert readers in them, selecting the

seem indifferent to their poor reading skills.

readings that we value for our novice students. We

Of course, these young people misperceive

may not have noticed that we have internalized a

the real world. Reading ability correlates with

large disciplinary vocabulary that is a foreign language income. In 2003, only 13 percent of the below-basic

to them. We have also learned a variety of cognitive

readers earned $850 a week or more, while almost

shortcuts that make our reading easy. For us, a

60 percent of the proficient readers did (National

single term may recall an entire mental structure of

Endowment for the Arts, 2007). In other words, poor

concepts, principles, assumptions, and implications

214

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

that enriches our understanding of the sentence and

they should be looking for as they read, how to take

foreshadows the next sentence. The unending flow

notes, and what they should retain for class. We may

of meaning allows us to move through the text

not be interested in teaching reading skills, but if we quickly with unwavering focus. Even our brightest

don’t help our students learn how to navigate reading students stumble over technical vocabulary and bring

assignments, they will leave our classes having learned shallow, if any, associations to their academic readings.

very little, not least of which is how to learn.

And they can’t possibly appreciate their value or our reasons for selecting them.

Give Students the Grand Tour

Moreover, from our students’ standpoint, some

Before you give the class a reading assignment from

of us don’t seem very serious about our course read-

a textbook or other nonfiction book, spend a little

ings. We assign them but make little or no effort to

time leading students through an exploration of the

sell the students on them. This might not be so odd if book’s structure and purpose. Of course, you must

everyone else weren’t trying to sell them something.

insist that they bring their books to class for this, Many of us lecture the readings in class, as if we don’t which means you must also insist that they buy the

expect our students to do them either. In addition,

required books, which you have a right to do. Have

few of us have incentive or sanction mechanisms to

them read the title and the Preface or Foreword and

hold our students accountable for doing the readings

discuss what they think the book is about. Then tell

when they are due. A big test is too distant a concern.

them to examine the Contents pages, and ask them

So why should they do the readings?

how the book is organized, what its major sections

and subsections are, and how they can identify them.

Stop Lecturing the Readings

If the work is a point-of-view nonfiction book, have

None of the strategies in this chapter for increasing students look for the author’s thesis, issues, or posi-reading compliance will work very well if we con-

tion and how the book develops it. Not only will this tinue to lecture the readings. Certainly we should use exercise ensure they have the required book, but it

class time to extend and update the readings and clar-will also get them over the hump of opening it and

ify what we know from experience confuses students.

will acquaint them enough with it to get more out of

But otherwise we should be leading in-class activities reading it.

on the material, specifically making students practice it, apply it, examine it, and work with it. These ac-Have Students Learn and Use Proven

tivities ensure better learning and retention of the

Reading Methods

readings while holding students accountable for do-

ing them. (See the “Holding Students Accountable

The simplest proven reading method, at least for

for the Readings” section below.) Just imagine what

factual and problem-solving material, is what is

you and your students could do in class if most of

sometimes called active recall or the 3R (read-recite-them came prepared!

review) strategy (McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein,

2009; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Students read

a section of text, then close the book and recite

Teach Students How to Read

aloud as much as they can remember, and finally

Academic Material

reread the section. In other words, they reinforce

In view of our students’ reading skills, habits, and per-their reading with saying and hearing the material

sistence, we must not assume that they know how to

and practice retrieval with self-testing. In terms

read and study a textbook, a research article, an essay, of student performance on multiple-choice and

or a piece of literature. They probably do not know

problem-solving tests, this technique works as

how each genre of assigned reading is organized, what effectively as note taking and exceeds just reading

Getting Students to Do the Readings

215

the text multiple times. In addition, it takes less time giving them a structured review assignment. See

than note taking (McDaniel et al., 2009; Roediger & below.)

Karpicke, 2006).

Similar multiple-step reading strategies date

If you think about these steps, you may real-

back many decades (for instance, Adler, 1940) and

ize that you’ve been following them for years. For

now proliferate on study-skills sites all over the Web.

example, when you pick up a research article, you

One or more of the steps make excellent writing

don’t usually read it straight through from the first assignments that students can hand in as proof of

word to the last. Rather, you read the abstract, thumb their having done the reading. You can select the

through the pages to glance at the tables and figures, strategies and tips you find the most effective for your then scan the conclusion, and perhaps work your way

course—some sites recommend different reading

back to the results or methods. The last thing you may techniques for different subjects—and refer your

read is the literature review, which normally comes

students to them. These are several major sites (active right after the abstract. This is the way an expert ap-in 2009):

proaches a piece of academic reading, which is quite

different from the way one reads a magazine article or

•

www.aw-bc.com/etips/usahome/index.html

a novel. Our students have not yet learned to make

•

www.educationatlas.com/study-skills.html

the distinctions.

•

www.studygs.net/murder.htm

•

www.how-to-study.com/pqr.htm

Give Students a Purpose for Their Reading

•

www.mindtools.com/rdstratg.html

•

www.utexas.edu/student/utlc/learning resources

Having a purpose for reading is the hallmark of

•

www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html

the expert reader. When you pick up a schol-

•

www.studygs.net

arly article or book, you’re usually looking for

something—something relevant to your research,

The strategies tend to overlap. For example,

a course you teach, or a long-term interest. One

SQ3R stands for survey-question-read-recall-review,

of the reasons that you scan it first is to see if you and PQR3 is short for preview-question-read-recite-have a purpose for reading it. If you find you do,

review. Just about all of them advise students to do

your scan informs you where to focus. By contrast,

the following:

students approach their readings with little or no

purpose, except to get it over with. They may not

1. Scan the reading to get a sense of what it’s about, have a preexisting interest in the material, and they how it’s organized, and where it’s going, noting

probably don’t know what they are supposed to look

the titles, subtitles, graphics, bold and italicized

for, which is why they complain that they can’t tell

words, conclusion, and summaries.

what is and isn’t important. We don’t help them any

2. Review the purpose for reading. (Since few stu-

by telling them that all the material is important.

dents approach their reading with a purpose, we

We must give our students a purpose for the

have to give them one or teach them how to de-

readings, things to look for, or a strategy for devising vise their own purpose. See below.)

their own purpose. Possible purposes include seeking

3. Read with purpose to find what you are looking

answers to the end-of-chapter questions or, better

for, thinking about what you are reading, and

yet, our own study questions. In our own questions,

paraphrasing what you are finding. (Instructors

we can direct our students’ attention to what we

may incorporate note taking into this step.)

deem important in the readings, what we want

4. Review the main points of the reading. (We may

them to gain from them. In addition, we can ask stu-

have to induce students to complete this step by

dents to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate what

216

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

they are reading, inducing them to deep-process the

Teach Students to Watch for Transitions

material, to think practically and critically about it.

and Verbal Signals

For a point-of-view nonfiction reading, such as an

Without consciously being aware of it, the expert

essay or monograph, we can provide students with

reader homes in on verbal signposts that make log-

several generic thinking questions that ensure solid

ical connections between ideas. These connections

comprehension and analysis:

provide the key to comprehension, as they build the

structure of the knowledge being explained or the ar-

•

What is the author’s position or claim?

guments being presented. So it is critical that we teach

•

What are the main arguments given in support of

our students to watch for them and ensure they know

this position or claim?

what the terms mean. Transitions or signal words and

•

What evidence or data does the author furnish to

phrases fall into several categories (Broderick, 1990; support his or her position or claim?

Langan, 2007):

•

Evaluate the author’s case, identifying any ques-

tionable evidence or data, missing information, or

•

Addition words signal that the author is making flaws in logic or analysis.

multiple points of the same kind. Examples: also, in addition, another, next, first, second, third, finally, In problem-solving disciplines such as math-likewise, moreover, and furthermore.

ematics, physics, and engineering, the purpose for

•

Cause-and-effect words indicate that the author is reading may be solving the end-of-chapter problems

about to address the results or effects. Examples:

you have assigned. Whatever the purpose, advise

because, since, consequently, therefore, thus, as a result, students to review the questions or problems before

so that, and if-then.

they read so they will be primed to be on the lookout

•

Comparison words point out a likeness between for the answers or the solution strategies as they

two ideas. Examples: like, likewise, similarly, eq-read.

ually, alike, just as, and in the same way.

Alternatively, we can show students how to cre-

•

Contrast words highlight a change in direction or ate their own purpose for reading, especially a text-a difference between two ideas. Examples: but, yet, book: by turning the chapter headings and subhead-still, however, in contrast, on the contrary, on the other ings into questions for them to answer (Doyle, 2008).

hand, otherwise, conversely, although, and even though.

For example, if the heading reads “The Causes of

•

Emphasis words tell the reader to pay close atten-Type 2 Diabetes,” the question for students to ask

tion to a particular idea. Examples: most of all, themselves and answer is, “What are the causes of

above all, a primary concern, a significant factor, a ma-type 2 diabetes?” When students scan the assigned

jor event, a principal item, a key feature, a distinctive reading, they can get a sense of the questions they

quality, a central issue, in particular, and especially will be addressing.

valuable/important/vital/relevant.

To guarantee that students read with the purpose

•

Illustration words signal that the author is giving we have in mind, we have to make them write out

one of more examples to clarify a general point.

their answers or solutions and turn them in, either as Examples: for example, for instance, to illustrate, daily graded homework or in a journal we collect and

specifically, like, and s uch as.

grade occasionally. While some students may not en-

joy reading a text with such care, you can sell them on Teach Students to Write Marginalia

the idea by telling them that they will never have to read the text again. Don’t let the word grade scare you.

and to Highlight or Underline Wisely

In the section below, “Holding Students Accountable

If your students already have decent academic reading for the Readings,” you will see what the term means

skills, they may not need to write out the answers

for you in practice.

to study questions to build up their reading skills.

Getting Students to Do the Readings

217

They may be ready for the next level—the level we

decisions as well as to justify their own. Over time, have mastered. What do we do when we are studying

they approach a consensus.

new material? We write marginalia and highlight or

To give marginalia, highlighting, and under-

underline the most important points. These are ad-

lining greater appeal, you can tell your students that vanced reading techniques because they presume the

these activities, done intelligently, will save them the reader can sort out and distill the important points in-trouble of having to read the entire text again, as is dependently. If your students seem halfway prepared

true with other close-reading methods. But these

to make such judgments on their own, a few in-class

techniques also require students to buy the assigned

practice sessions may ensure their readiness.

books and mark them up, which reduces what little

Marginalia are notations we write in the mar-

resale value they have. Still, as expert readers, we

gins to summarize the gist of the content or our re-

know that the only way to study a book in depth is

actions to a passage of text. Often reviewing our

to mark it up; it’s part of the learning and learning-reactions later makes us recall the substance of the

how-to-learn process. We have the right to require

text. We can assign our students the task of writing

this commitment of our students. If they choose

summaries or their reactions or both as homework

not to make it, they have the option to drop your

and can check their compliance by asking them

course.

to read their marginalia in class and by providing

feedback as needed. To teach them to write useful

Require Students to Review

marginalia, we can impose some rules on what

Their Readings

they can write—perhaps three to five words per

paragraph. The best readers enrich their marginalia

Although all the study-skills and reading-skills books by underlining key words, phrases, and sentences

and websites recommend taking this final step, stu-

as well.

dents usually don’t do it. So we may have to push

Underlining or highlighting is an advanced

them to do what is best for them by assigning a home-

reading technique, but unfortunately some of the

work exercise that makes them consolidate and in-

poorest readers rely on it. Students typically highlight tegrate the new knowledge they have gained in the

or underline too much text, which does little to

readings. The simplest review assignment for students improve their recall of the selected material and

is to write out the main points made in the read-

actually dulls their recall of unselected material

ings and then put them together into a one- or two-

(Kiewra, 2005). As with marginalia, the value of

sentence summary. Another review strategy, one that

underlining or highlighting depends on the soundness

requires less writing but more thinking, is to have

of the reader’s judgment in sifting out the important students draw a concept map or mind map of the

material—the key sentences and ideas. To sharpen

readings (Peirce, 2006). This assignment directs their our students’ judgment, we can lead them through

focus to the hierarchical structure of the knowledge.

scavenger-hunt exercises to find the main idea in

While the readings no doubt give plenty of hints,

paragraphs. Along the way, we can tell them how

students must construct their understanding of the

textbooks are typically written: the topic sentence is organization of the concepts and principles. If it re-usually the first sentence of a paragraph; if not there, flects valid understanding, the product gives them a

it’s probably the last sentence (Doyle, 2008). Weimer mental structure with which to retain and elaborate

(2002) teaches her students intelligent highlighting or on the knowledge. If your students haven’t mapped

underlining in two class periods. She has them mark

material in other classes, teach them how by mod-

their readings as homework, then has a discussion

eling the method in class, then having them work

about what she selected as important, what they

in small groups to map a minilecture or reading in

selected, and why. She asks them to explain her

class a few times, then assigning mapping as individual

218

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

homework. (Chapter Twenty-Six examines a variety

readability indexes are available on the Web. For

of graphics aids to learning, including mapping.)

example, the Flesch-Kincaid (English) Readability

A third type of assignment, called reflective writ-Test, based on word length and sentence length, is

ing, relies on freewriting about the readings, section explained at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesch-by section (see Chapter Seventeen). Championed

Kincaid. When you put text into the calculator at

by Kalman (2007) for physics courses, this method

www.standards-schmandards.com/exhibits/rix/index

works well for the sciences and mathematics. Students

.php, you obtain both a grade-level score and a

first read a section or two of the assigned chapter

reading ease score.

while highlighting, jotting down marginalia, or doing whatever else helps their comprehension. Then for

Sell the Readings

roughly two-thirds of a page, they freewrite about the To an extent, we can make some students want to

section—not summarizing it but writing about what

do the readings simply by promoting them. In the

it means and then about what they don’t understand.

syllabus, we can emphasize how central the readings

By this process, they generate questions to ask in

are to the course. We can explain their purpose, rel-

class. In reflective writing, students are reviewing not evance, and high value, as well as our reasons for

just the material but also their understanding of it.

choosing them over other options. Each day or week,

Kalman grades the freewrites only on completeness,

we can preview and promote the upcoming reading

counting them as 20 percent of the course grade.

assignment, describing what questions it will answer

He documents that his students not only master the

and what value it will hold for their immediate learn-material better as a result but also come to appreciate ing and later lives and careers. We can place it in the the activity by the middle of the term.

context of the next class, later assignments, upcoming in-class activities, and the larger course and curricu-Assign Realistic Reading Loads

lum. To help get students over the first hump, we can let them start reading key pieces in class (Bean, 1996; We have a tendency to assign too much reading for

Hobson, 2004).

our students, given their reading challenges. Less is Let’s not underestimate the potential impact of

more when it comes to reading assignments because

such efforts. Students cite their personal desire to learn student are more likely to complete shorter ones

as their single strongest motivator for doing the read-that longer ones (Hobson, 2004). According to

ings, far above wanting to participate in discussion or one study, when the instructor assigned six different feeling obligated (Bradley, 2007). Chances are we can readings, the vast majority of students in the class

influence their desire with a short, persuasive pitch.

barely glanced at three of them. They were much

more likely to do the readings when only two articles were assigned. Even so, students rarely completed

Hold Students Accountable

all the readings (Bradley, 2007). Still, the evidence for the Readings

suggests that we should assign as required only the

Making the readings more accessible, doable, and

most essential readings. For guidance, we should

valuable to students may go far. Once students start

review our learning outcomes and the fit between

doing the readings, they may enjoy the learning

the readings and the rest of the course.

and sense of achievement enough to continue

We also should take measures to ensure our

reading. But these helpful strategies may not go

readings are aimed at students’ level—that is, at

far enough. You may also have to induce students

marginally skilled readers (Hobson, 2004). Even if

to do the readings for extrinsic reasons—that is, to

we teach them how to read the material, they will

set up incentives and sanctions related to their own

need practice before they become fluent at it. A few

self-interest.

Getting Students to Do the Readings

219

We know that most students are motivated

•

Grade the products in some way, even if on an

by grades, just as people in general are motivated by informal scale, such as one to four points, zero or

√ √ √

√

material and monetary rewards. We also know that

one point,

+/ / −,

/0, or P/F. You don’t

people are motivated by pride. They don’t want to

have to grade on quality or provide feedback as

look bad in front of others, especially superiors and you would with a formal assignment. Since you’re

peers. These two cost-benefit values suggest ways to

looking only for evidence of students’ having

make students accountable for doing the readings. So

done the readings, you can give full credit to a

whether they want to do them, most students will

good-faith effort—that is, one that addresses the

decide that they have to do them to attain their goals readings and meets your length or elaboration

and avoid unpleasant consequences.

requirements. You can assess on these criteria at a

This chapter reviews four categories of tools

glance. At least with homework, as long as you

that hold students accountable for the readings:

require that students hand it in for every reading,

homework on the readings, quizzes on the readings,

you may get equally good results with grading

in-class problem-solving or written exercises on the

only some of the homework some of the time as

readings, and oral “performance” on the readings,

you would with grading all of it all of the time

either prepared or cold-call (impromptu). Abun-

(Carney et al., 2008).

dant research documents that these methods work

•

The grades on the products in total must count

(Barrineau, 2001; Carney, Fry, Gabriele, & Bal-

significantly toward the final grade. We know that

lard, 2008; Connor-Greene, 2000; Fernald, 2004;

5 percent is too little (Sullivan, Middendorf, &

Leeming, 2002; Mazur, 1997; Nathan, 2005; Nilson,

Camp, 2008) and that 20 percent is an effective

2007b; Ruscio, 2001; Thompson, 2002; Thorne,

incentive (Kalman, 2007).

•

Make the readings the only available source of the

2000). In fact, Nathan (2005) claims that students

knowledge in the readings—that is, don’t lecture

decide if they will do the readings for a given day

the readings in class or post outlines or summaries

based on whether they have homework based on

of them on the course website.

the readings to hand in, they will be tested on the

material, or they have to speak publicly on the

Pride becomes a powerful secondary motivator

material in class. If none of these conditions applies, when the accountability tool is some sort of oral per-Nathan explains, chances are good that most students

formance or in-class group work for a group grade.

will skip the readings.

In this latter situation, most students feel a sense of re-To make any of these tools work effectively as

sponsibility to their teammates (see Chapter Sixteen).

accountability mechanisms, follow these guidelines:

•

Use these tools or some combination of them on

SPECIFIC TOOLS FOR HOLDING

a regular or near-regular basis on the class days that STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE

readings are due. Your students should expect to

be held accountable for every reading assignment.

The tools described here—some obvious, others

Randomly administered (or “chance”) quizzes

not—come from a variety of sources, and certain

also raise reading compliance (Fernald, 2004;

forms of homework also teach students how to read

Ruscio, 2002), but not as much as regularly

and comprehend the material (see above).

occurring ones (Carney et al., 2008). Generally

the more frequent the quizzing, the stronger the

Homework

inducement to read and the higher the student

Some research finds that regular, required homework,

learning and achievement (Carney et al., 2008;

even if it is not always graded, motivates students to Leeming, 2002).

do the readings more regularly and carefully than does

220

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

any schedule of quizzes (Carney et al., 2008). With

them either in class or online shortly before class.

some forms of homework, you may want your stu-

Either way, accountability quizzes should focus only

dents to submit two copies: one for them to refer to

on the major points and concepts in the readings,

and take notes on in class and another to turn in to

not details, and the items should be easy for you

you for grading. The copy for you may be submitted

to grade quickly—either multiple choice or short

electronically before class. You may even make the

answer. One study found short answer questions

written product a requirement for entering class. The more effective than multiple-choice items in helping

options for homework are almost limitless:

students gauge their own learning (Sullivan et al.,

2008). Remember that you can grade the answers

•

Notes on or an abstract or summary of the read-

as simply as acceptable/not acceptable based on the

ings (Barrineau, 2001; Kalman, 2007; Kalman &

topic they address and their length.

Kalman, 1996; McKinney, 2001; Peirce, 2006)

Just-in-time teaching, an inquiry-based method

•

An outline, concept map, or mind map of the

described in Chapter Eighteen, is a type of daily quiz.

readings (Peirce, 2006)

Students answer conceptual questions, usually multi-

•

One or more questions on the readings, on cards,

ple choice, online just before each class, giving you or electronically posted (Martin, 2000; McKinney,

enough time to adjust your plan for the day’s class

2001; Millis & Cottell, 1998). You may ask for

to address any comprehension problems students had

specific types of questions (multiple choice, true-

with the readings. We know this method raises stu-

false, essay, and so on) for possible use in future

dents’ level of preparation for class, participation in tests.

class, engagement, and achievement (Marrs & Novak,

•

Answers to study, reading-response, or end-of-

2004; Novak, Patterson, Gavrin, & Christian, 1999) chapter questions (Carney et al., 2008; McKinney,

as long as it appreciably figures into the final grade 2001; Peirce, 2006). Questions that make students

(Sullivan et al., 2008).

reflect on the personal relevance of the material

With in-class quizzes, you can save paper by

also enhance their perceptions of their ability

dictating the questions or displaying them on a slide to participate productively in class discussions

or overhead transparency. You can also have students

(Carney et al., 2008).

make up the questions as homework. Finally, you

•

Solutions to problems.

can follow the individual quiz with a group quiz and

•

Writing-to-learn exercises (see Chapter Seven-

make the double exercise a real learning experience

teen) such as dialectical notes (Peirce, 2006).

(Michaelsen, 1997–1998).

•

Any type of outside material that illustrates an im-

portant point in the readings or an application

of them—for example, a magazine or newspaper

In-Class Written Exercises

article, a printed advertisement, a photograph, a

or Problem Solving

website, or an object.

These exercises may be any of a wide assortment of

writing-to-learn and classroom assessment activities

Quizzes

(see Chapters Seventeen and Twenty-Eight)—for

Frequent, regular quizzes are proven accountabil-

example, a one-minute paper, a reading response

ity tools (Barrineau, 2001; Carney et al., 2008;

mini-essay, a summary, or an audience-directed

Connor-Greene, 2000; Mazur, 1997; Nathan, 2005;

paraphrase—as long as they focus on the readings.

Nilson, 2007b; Thompson, 2002; Thorne, 2000),

They can even be graphical: a summary drawing, a

and they induce reading compliance more effectively

poster, or a concept or mind map of a chapter or

than randomly administered (or chance) quizzes

book. With problems, students can solve them or

(Carney et al., 2008). These days you can administer

design new ones for future tests.

Getting Students to Do the Readings

221

To encourage high-quality work, you might let

presentations on the readings. For example, following students use some in-class products as resources for

up in-class written exercises or problem solving by

future tests. One summary exercise that is particu-

asking some students or groups to explain their results larly effective at motivating students to study the read-to the class is an oral performance, and many others

ings seriously is a “mind dump.” After answering any

are possible:

questions on the readings, you allow students five or ten minutes to write everything they can remember

•

Randomly call on students to present their

from the readings. Then you collect these recollec-

homework on the readings (questions, answers to

tions and return them to their authors at the begin-

questions, problem solutions, summaries, reading

ning of tests. While students may have little time to responses, outside material, and so on), either

hunt through them during tests, they will feel less

in addition to or instead of handing it in to

anxious and no doubt will have better mastery of the

you. Over the term, you can probably call on

material just for having written about it.

all your students at least once, and maybe many

While individual accountability is critical for

times.

reading compliance, some of these exercises are

•

Have students bring in questions on the readings

adaptable to teams. In fact, the more challenging

(for future tests, discussion, clarification) and call ones, such as writing high-order multiple-choice

on other students to answer them.

items for future tests, may benefit from the synergy

•

Hold regular recitation sessions that start with sim-

of multiple minds. You can find many more group

ple recall questions and move into higher-order

learning activities suitable to most readings in Chapter discussion questions. The key is to cold-call on

Sixteen, such as structured controversy, numbered

students in a way that looks or actually is ran-

heads together, send-a-problem, talking aloud paired

dom. Shaffer (n.d.), for instance, asks his students

problem solving, and student teams-achievement

to print their names on three-by-five-inch cards,

divisions (STAD).

which he collects and uses during the semester

You will need to keep individual students and

to pick students to answer questions. At times he

groups on task and accountable. So after each exercise shuffles the deck. At other times, he stacks the

or problem, randomly cold-call on several students or deck before class. He then grades students’ an-groups to read their answer, explain their solution, or swers on the fly, marking a plus or minus on their

display their graphic. If the exercise or problem has card. These oral performances count 15 percent

one right answer and not everyone comes up with it,

of the course grade and constitute most class pe-

don’t correct those with wrong answers. Let students

riods. Since he calls on thirty to sixty students in

with different results debate them. Another account-

a typical class, they get plenty of participation op-

ability measure is having students sign and hand in

portunities.

their exercises or problem solutions. If valid answers

•

Use the Socratic method while leading discussions

emerged during class, you don’t have to correct or

on the readings (see Chapter Fourteen).

write feedback to the students. Just check off that they

•

Have speaking-intensive experiential activities in

completed the task.

class, such as debates, panels, press conferences,

role plays, and simulations that require the

knowledge in the readings (see Chapter Fifteen).

Oral Performances

Though you may not be able to involve all your

These are not lengthy oral presentations based on

students equally, you can induce almost all of

major projects. Rather they are daily recitation or

them to prepare because you might call on any of

discussion sessions or short impromptu or prepared

them to play key roles.

222

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

MANAGING YOUR WORKLOAD

and you can grade oral performances on the fly

in class.

Before you conclude that accountability tools would

•

You can give fewer major tests and assignments,

generate too heavy a workload for you, consider how

saving yourself considerable preparation and grad-

much time the tools actually demand and what other

ing time.

tasks they can eliminate. Yes, you will have to find

•

You can require and collect daily homework on

or create short assignments, quiz questions, recitation the readings, but you only have to grade some of

and discussion questions, or in-class exercises and ac-it some of the time (Carney et al., 2008).

tivities, and you will have to grade them in some

•

You need not prepare lectures.

fashion. However:

Finally, consider how much more your students

will learn and how deeply you can take them into the

•

You can have your students make up questions and

material if they do the readings on time. Imagine

problems for you, whether for quizzes, tests, or

the class discussions and activities you can lead. In fact, in-class exercises.

most accountability tools serve multiple purposes and

•

You can make the grading quick and effortless

can provide a springboard or an entire framework for

(Connor-Greene, 2000; Thompson, 2002). With

a student-active class period. Perhaps they can save

homework, short answer or essay daily quizzes,

you time.

and in-class exercises and problem solving, you

need only check the work for a good-faith effort,

C H A P T E R 24

Teaching Your Students to Think

and Write in Your Discipline

Mostofusbemoanthequalityofourstu- words,youareteachingthemhowyourdiscipline dents’ writing. We complain about their

thinks. Only when they can think in the discipline do apparent ignorance of mechanics, punc-they have the extra mental energy to tend to gram-

tuation, spelling, word use, paragraph organization,

matical and stylistic conventions (Richardson, 2008).

and the rules of sound sentence structure, and we

wonder what they did in their first-year composition

CROSS-DISCIPLINARY

class—unless, of course, we teach first-year compo-

COMMONALITIES

sition. In fact, whatever writing problems students

have tend to get worse as they shift from discipline to discipline (Richardson, 2008). So your students may

Not surprisingly, all of the academic disciplines share a common ground of thought and expression, and the

have learned to write decent papers in composition

writing-across-the-curriculum movement defined

but produce poorly organized, mechanically marred

that territory. Toulmin, Rieke, and Janik (1984)

lab reports, research papers, and literary analyses.

offer a particularly useful model of cross-disciplinary A major reason that students can’t write well

reasoning and writing. First, all scholarship states a in a given discipline is that they don’t know how to

claim of some kind: a hypothesis, a thesis, a solution, think in the discipline. While thinking may not always or a resolution. Second, it presents data related

be expressed in writing, writing is always an expres-

to that claim—that is, some kind of factual evi-

sion of thinking. In fact, writing instruction specialists dence that may take the form of numerical results

contend that writing is thinking (Bean, 1996; Richard-of an experiment, inferential statistics from a survey, son, 2008). Therefore, when you teach your students

historical documentation, or quotations from a text.

to write in your discipline, you are teaching them

Third, it makes a warrant—that is, as persuasive an

how to think critically in your discipline. In other

argument as possible that the data justify the claim

223

224

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

or make this claim superior to competing claims.

we fail to articulate our discipline’s metacognitive

Scholars then debate the validity of a given claim

model to our students (Donald, 2002; Langer, 1992;

in terms of the applicability and the quality of its

Nelson, 2000). Maybe it never crosses our minds.

supporting data and the strength of its warrant.

Maybe we are so wedded to our model that we

The claim-data-warrant model is simple enough

forget it isn’t common knowledge or common sense.

to teach to undergraduates, and it sensitizes them

Maybe we assume that students will simply pick

to the need to include all three elements in every

it up by osmosis. Some eventually do, of course.

piece of formal writing they do. (Student writing

Maybe we did. But not everyone does so easily, not

is often missing one or two of them.) It also gives

without performing poorly in course work along the

them an easy-to-use framework for evaluating schol-

way. And many students never get it. They major

arly, rhetorical, and expository writing in general,

in another field with a disciplinary dialect that they including that of their peers.

somehow do pick up.

However,

this

cross-disciplinary

common

Why not explain your field’s metacognitive

ground does not extend very far. The disciplines

model to your students up front, especially in intro-

diverge on the writing formats they follow; the

ductory courses where their concept is the sketchiest language they use; the organization of the claim,

and often the most mistaken? Then you can provide

data, and warrant; the forms of data they consider

them practice in critically reasoning within the

respectable; and their standards for an acceptable

model. Writing is the natural context for their prac-

warrant (Walvoord & McCarthy, 1991). You cannot

tice because it is the most formal, concrete expression improve your students’ writing unless you explain the of a student’s understanding of the discipline. Almost format, language, organization, and so on that your

all of us give graded writing assignments, and they

discipline demands and follow up with models, prac-

afford students the best feedback on their efforts to tice assignments, and plenty of feedback (Madigan & communicate in the disciplinary dialect.

Brosamer, 1990).

METACOGNITIVE DIFFERENCES

TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING

AMONG DISCIPLINES

THROUGH THE DISCIPLINE’S

METACOGNITIVE MODEL

By way of introduction to disciplinary differences,

consider the short-answer or essay-question com-

In general, critical thinking means higher-order thin-mand that often appears on tests and written

king, such as more sophisticated cognitive operations assignments: “compare and contrast.” In the labora-described by Bloom (1956), Perry (1968), and

tory sciences this typically means “to list” as many

Wolcott (2006). But these operations take on more

similarities and differences as possible. In the social specific definitions in the disciplines, where critical sciences, it implies “to discuss” as many as possible, thinking follows the typically unspoken conventions

referring to theoretical texts and research findings to of what constitutes “legitimate” argumentation and

buttress one’s argument. In literature, the command

evidence. It is the “disciplinary dialect” that a field has yet another translation, which is “to analyze” one speaks, the “disciplinary scaffolding” on which the

critical similarity and one critical difference at length, profession constructs knowledge, the “metacognitive

staying close to the texts.

model” on which the discipline operates (Nelson,

It is little wonder that a literature major in an

2000). Thus, one field’s critical thinking may be an-

introductory biology course can write an elegant es-

other field’s logical fallacy or unjustified conclusion.

say comparing and contrasting plants and animals and

This is not a problem in itself. The problem is that

never understand why it barely gets a passing grade.

Teaching Your Students to Think and Write in Your Discipline 225

Similarly, the biology major in a literature course may continuum, biology students are expected to think

be just as puzzled about why his lengthy list of similar-inductively, inferentially, metaphorically, and skepti-ities and differences between The Grapes of Wrath and cally about their results. Chemistry falls in between.

The Sun Also Rises receives a D. In fact, it is surprisIn engineering, students are supposed to use proce-

ing that as many students figure out these disciplinary dural knowledge to solve problems and make design

nuances as they do.

decisions in the absence of complete information

Based on interviews with college instructors,

(Donald, 2002).

Langer (1992) outlines the major metacognitive

differences among three major disciplinary groups,

Social Sciences

especially as these differences pertain to the written Most subfields of psychology follow the scientific

products expected of students. Donald’s (2002)

mode, especially those that rely on the experimental

work, also based on faculty interviews, fills in some method. However, social scientists rarely have the

insightful details, especially within the sciences.

chance to conduct experiments and instead must

rely on surveys, demographic data sets, interviews,

and observations, all of which have validity and

Physical and Biological Sciences

reliability weaknesses rooted in the data collector

and Engineering

or the respondents or subjects. For example, survey

Students are supposed to apply hard facts and reliable and interview respondents are not always accurate or

data to a problem-solving situation, consider possi-

truthful, and those being observed may not behave

ble outcomes, hypothesize the most reasonable pre-

typically. The styles of analysis of such data rest on diction, perform a tightly controlled experiment to

questionable assumptions as well. For example, the

test the hypothesis, measure the results meticulously, statistical analyses of large data sets usually assume that the variables of interest are normally distributed, and come to probable, carefully qualified conclusions which may or may not be true.

based on the resulting evidence. Student opinion has

Another difference between the physical and

little or no place in the process, and students should biological sciences and the social sciences lies in the establish the validity of the source when citing some-number of acceptable worldviews. While the former

one else’s published conclusions.

adhere to one dominant paradigm, the latter entertain A lab write-up or report has a specific format,

two or three theoretical perspectives (Kuhn, 1970).

much like a recipe, that students receive instructions Sociology, for example, has functionalism and conflict to follow. The task involves selecting the relevant in-theory, and political science has pluralism and elitism, formation from lab notes and placing it in the proper with major pieces of research usually grounded in

categories, following a specific format. Students are one or the other. These pairs comprise competing

expected to include tables, charts, graphs, drawings, ideologies with different value-relevant explanations and the like to clarify, simplify, and abbreviate the for the unequal distribution of social resources

presentation. They should carefully construct and la-

and rewards. They also tend to focus on different

bel these visuals. What writing is necessary should be questions—in particular, the ones they best answer.

clean, concise, and impersonal, with relatively short, To be fair, however, both theoretical sides share one noncomplex sentences. Lists don’t even require com-orientation: both look more to the social structure

plete sentences. Usually writing in the passive voice is than to individuals to explain human behavior and

recommended.

phenomenon.

Within the sciences, physics relies heavily on

Given that the social sciences rely on flawed data

deductive logic to obtain a reasonable, plausible an-

and analyses and ideologically shaded theories, the

swer within expected limits. On the other end of the

standards for evidence are more relaxed than they are

226

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

in the physical and biological sciences. Researchers

or metaphorically reflects some aspect of real life.

need present only partial, probabilistic explanations, To infer intelligently what an author may intend,

as long as they structure a strong argument and

students should draw on the major themes and motifs

anchor it in the literature. Students in turn must

in literature. But personal opinion is an integral

learn to view their own and others’ research results

aspect of interpretation; in fact, originality of opinion as probabilistic, tentative, and subject to debate. To is prized. But an opinion must also have validity, and grasp the complex nature of social scientific research validity is derived from specific, supporting references with all its sources of inherent uncertainty, students to the text. Therefore, points in the text provide the must progress through all of Perry’s (1968) stages of data or evidence of literary interpretation.

undergraduate development.

Students are also expected to analyze and eval-

uate an author’s literary style, often comparing and

History-Based Disciplines

contrasting it with those of other authors. They must incorporate a historical understanding of literary gen-Here the focus is on explaining the relationships

res and traditions so they know which comparisons

between contradictory developments and conflicting

and contrasts are interesting. For example, examining documentary evidence. Students are expected to

stylistic differences between Chaucer and Hemingway

examine concrete historical circumstances and to

might yield an extensive list, but a boring one bela-

develop defensible stands on controversial issues,

boring the obvious. Of much greater interest are the

drawing on detailed supporting evidence based on

fewer and more subtle differences between authors

valid documentation. Part of this process entails

who occupy the same or similar literary worlds.

viewing the conclusions of others with a critical eye, Like the social sciences, the field of literature

distinguishing true from false positions and main

has no agreed-on approach to analysis and criticism.

points from subpoints.

Rather, the discipline has several competing ones—at

In essence, the challenge in writing a paper is

the moment, rational, symbolic interpretive, and

to argue clearly and convincingly a historical inter-

postmodern—that focus on different dimensions of

pretation using concrete factual, contextual evidence.

literature. An English department may have represen-

Content is of greater importance than format. As one

tatives from all three schools of thought on its faculty, history instructor describes the rule of thumb, stu-so students may learn three different approaches

dents should “give at least three different types of

to literary interpretation, never understanding the

reasons relevant to the issues and details to support sources of these differences and completely confused

those reasons” (Langer, 1992, p. 79).

about the discipline’s values and standards. Again, it The fields within this model include art, music,

takes a student at an advanced stage of development

dance, and literary history, some philosophical studies, in Perry’s (1968) framework to grasp what a valid

the historical specialties in the social sciences, and, of literary analysis or criticism constitutes.

course, history. Law is similar in that an argument is An excellent paper then begins with a novel but

won on the basis of factual evidence and a persuasive thematic slant on a piece of literature or a credible analysis of what the facts suggest (Donald, 2002).

analysis of its place within an identifiable school of thought, both strongly supported by details and quo-Literature

tations from the actual work. Thus, content is critical.

As in the history-based disciplines, students are

But more than in other fields, so is the writing style supposed to interpret literature, but in literary criti-in the paper itself. After all, literature is writing, much cism, this means something distinctly different. In

like science is the scientific method. Those attracted the latter, students should interpret the meaning of

to literature should be extremely literate and literary a piece of literature—that is, how it allegorically

themselves.

Teaching Your Students to Think and Write in Your Discipline 227

Along with English, foreign languages, and

a whole new gestalt on what disciplines, knowledge,

comparative literature, the arts and much of philoso-

scholarship, and higher education are all about.

phy follow a similar model, perhaps with less exacting standards for students’ writing style.

TEACHING STUDENTS TO WRITE

FOR THEIR FUTURES

MAKING STUDENTS BETTER

Except for students who become academics, few of

THINKERS AND WRITERS

the writing conventions you teach them will carry

them into their careers. The workplace has its own

The purpose of this summary was not to tell you

metacognitive mode—yet another dialect, another

what you already know about your field. Rather it

scaffolding that most of your students will have to

was, first, to heighten your awareness of very different learn sooner or later. You can help them learn it

heuristics that students may bring into your course

sooner in your course, where the costs of error are

from other courses they have taken outside your dis-

comparatively low. They need to know that profes-

cipline. Second, it was to help you determine what

sionals and managers spend much of their workday

facets of the disciplinary dialect and scaffolding that writing, and even most non-college-educated front-you already share with your students and what else

line supervisors spend at least a fourth of their time they may benefit from learning. Certainly they need

at work on writing tasks (Mabrito, 1997). No doubt

to know whether your field has competing schools of

your students will greatly appreciate your instructing thought, and if so, which one you belong to if you ex-them in a skill they will need and use so much.

pect your students’ work to reflect it. In addition, the So if any of your courses can accommodate it, you

more they know about your discipline’s conventions

may want to give your students some experience

of argumentation and evidence—the more they can

in business/administrative—sometimes called tech-

think like a colleague—the better they will perform

nical—writing. Such assignments fit in naturally in your courses, especially in their formal writing as-with simulations, extended cases, problem-based

signments.

learning, and some service-learning experiences (see

While you can explain these conventions to

Chapters Fifteen, Nineteen, and Twenty), and you

your students, Nelson (1993) suggests a one-hour

can choose among several writing genres: memos

in-class exercise that allows students to “discover”

and letters; lengthy proposals for new policies, proce-your discipline’s metacognitive model on their own,

dures, projects, products, and services; and progress inductively. Pass out a brief essay-type question along reports on projects and transitions. While the briefer with copies of three or four different answers ranging forms make excellent individual tasks, proposals and

in grades from A to D/F, but with comments and

projects reports are often collaborative products in

grades removed. (Past exams are excellent sources.)

the business/administrative world and thus should be

Then break students into small groups and have

in a course as well.

them figure out which answers are better and in

This type of writing has distinct features not

what ways. After they develop a list of criteria

shared with scholarly kinds (Anson & Forsberg, 1990; (which you should verify in class discussion), assign Plutsky & Wilson, 2001). Let us examine them in

another essay for them to write, either in class or as detail.

homework, following these criteria. According to

Nelson, students who have done this exercise report

Specific Audience Pitch

higher-than-expected grades not only in the course

Because a message is always directed to a specific

in which it is administered but in their other courses individual or group, either you or your students must as well. For many students, the experience gives them clearly define the audience for each assignment.

228

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Students may have to research the literacy level,

title page; the Contents page; an executive summary

values, and needs of the audience before they can

or abstract (one-page maximum) focusing on the

target their message to it.

purpose and the recommendations; short chapters

and sections; abundant headings and subheadings;

Language and Style

lists rather than text when possible; graphics such as charts, tables, diagrams, and illustrations to minimize Since the audience is usually a nonspecialist in a

and summarize text; a conclusion listing recommen-

hectic, pragmatic environment, the language must be

dations; appendixes with nonessential supporting

nontechnical, accessible, concise, and direct enough

information; and generous white space throughout.

to be skimmed. The preferred words and phrases

are clean, short, essential, and powerful—chosen to

be quickly informative or persuasive. For instance,

Accuracy and Timeliness

students should practice replacing prepositional

Finally, business/administrative writing must be error phrases with adjectives and adverbs, wordy construc-free, which means checked for factual accuracy and

tions like “prior to” and “in the event that” with

carefully proofread, as well as submitted on time. If briefer ones such as “before” and “if,” and sentences not, the credibility of the writer suffers or, worse yet, written in the passive voice with those written in the the proposal is not even read. Students must come to

active voice.

understand that the real world is much less tolerant

and patient than college courses.

Purpose

With few exceptions, business/administrative com-

munications ask the audience to take some form of

THE MANY WORLDS OF WRITING

action—for example, giving approval, modifying be-

liefs or values, changing behavior, or parting with

No doubt almost all young students enter college with money or other resources. Progress reports may ask

the mistaken belief that they will learn how to think for more time, more funding, or simply continued

and write well for all purposes and for all the possi-faith and support.

ble nooks and crannies of the world of work where

they could land. Just like dualistic thinking, this be-Evidence to Justify Purpose

lief will die hard in their hearts. But this belief may not die at all if instructors don’t explicitly teach and Standard evidence includes observations, repeated

show students the variety of styles and standards of

events, interviews, small-scale surveys, and printed

thinking and writing. Students need to know up front

materials, usually nonacademic. Students can ben-

that what their literature instructor considers good ev-efit from learning how to collect such data and

idence, argument, and writing style does not carry

familiarizing themselves with respected business,

over completely into their chemistry, political science, administrative, professional, trade, and industry

or history courses, and that each cluster of disciplines sources.

follows its own set of rules and standards. And so do the worlds of private industry and government, where

Format

students are most likely to seek employment. If we

As in journalistic writing, the purpose and main

don’t share with them these basic truths, they may

points appear up front in the introduction. Longer

come to think that neither academe nor the world

communications such as proposals contain other

beyond it has any standards and conventions at all.

reader-friendly features that chunk the information: a

C H A P T E R 25

Accommodating Different Learning Styles

Peoplelearn,ormorepreciselyprefertolearn, instruments, most of which have no academic in different ways. Many favor learning by do-currency. But the approaches, frameworks, models,

ing hands-on activities, some by reading and

and typologies of learning styles that do number well writing about a topic, others by watching demon-over a dozen. They identify individual differences

strations and videos, and still others by listening to a in information processing, orientations to learning,

lecture. All of these preferences key into the different perceived locus of control, types of intelligence,

ways people learn most easily, commonly known as

hemispheric dominance, and personality on Jun-

learning or processing styles.

gian and non-Jungian dimensions (Hall & Mosley,

Should instructors then teach their material in

2005; Sarasin, 1998). One that is widely known

different ways to cater to these different styles? Maybe because some K–12 leaders endorsed it is Gard-they should prepare students for life in the real world ner’s (1993) multiple intelligences, of which there

by not giving them special treatment. Nevertheless,

are eight: verbal linguistic, logical-mathematical,

knowing and being able to take advantage of students’

musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal,

learning-style strengths also helps instructors prepare intrapersonal, and naturalist. (You can identify your them for the real world. Particularly now, when our

intelligences by taking the inventory free of charge

society is concerned with fairness and equality for

at www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinexcel/free

those of different genders, races, ethnicities, and abil-multiple intelligences test.xls.) However, this chapter ities, teaching to different learning styles is a major refers to this model only in passing because teaching facet of equity.

to so many intelligences is impractical and because it Over the past few decades, the idea of learning

has no empirical foundation (Morris, 2008).

styles has spawned a cottage industry. Hall and Mosley Rather, we will focus on three other models that

(2005) identified seventy-one different learning-style are easier to apply, more popular in higher education, 229

230

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

and more relevant to college students. Kolb’s model

observations and perceptions into logical theories,

of the learning cycle and learning styles (1984) is ex-thus moving into the third phase of abstract con-

periential, Fleming and Mills’s VARK model (1992)

ceptualization (AC). When they use concepts to

is sensory based, and Felder and Silverman’s Index

make decisions and solve problems, learners exhibit

of Learning Styles (1988) eclectically integrates cogthe final phase of the learning cycle, that of active nitive, sensory, and experiential elements with one

experimentation (AE).

dimension found in the Jungian-based Myers-Briggs

Individual learners enter the cycle at different

Type Indicator, intuitive versus sensing.

points, typically because they prefer the activities associated with a particular part of the cycle. Thus, the various phases of the learning cycle form the basis for KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES

categories of learning modes.

MODEL AND EXPERIENTIAL

The concrete experience mode is characterized by LEARNING THEORY

a reliance more on feeling than on thinking to solve

problems. In this mode, people interpret human

Kolb (1984) developed his model to inform training

situations in a very personal way and focus on the

in private industry and not so much as a piece of

tangible here and now. Intuitive, open-minded,

scholarship. It has weak predictive validity—too weak social, and artistic in their information processing, even to support its training applications—and low

these learners center on knowledge that demonstrates

test-retest reliability (research summaries in Felder & the complex and the unique as opposed to systematic,

Brent, 2005, and Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).

scientifically derived theories and generalizations.

But the learning cycle Kolb describes maps well onto

The reflective observation mode is similarly mar-the structure of the brain (Zull, 2002), and it is still ked by intuitive thinking, but as applied to observing a fixture in the learning styles literature. Because

and understanding situations, not solving and manip-

the model is a business tool, the instrument that

ulating them. Using this mode, a learner is quick to

can “type” a person is available only for purchase at grasp the meanings and implications of ideas and sit-www.haygroup.com/tl/Questionnaires Workbooks/

uations and can examine situations and phenomena

Kolb Learning Style Inventory.aspx.

empathetically from different points of view. Patience, objectivity, and good judgment flourish in this mode.

Kolb’s Learning Cycle

Reliance on logical thinking and conceptual

Kolb portrays the process of meaningful learning as a reasoning characterizes the abstract conceptualization series of events that integrates the functions of feeling, mode. It focuses on theory building, systematic

perceiving, thinking, and acting. The learner moves

planning, manipulation of abstract symbols, and

through a cycle comprising four phases: concrete ex-

quantitative analysis. This mode can generate person-

perience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract

ality traits such as precision, discipline, rigor, and an conceptualization (AC), and active experimenta-appreciation for elegant, parsimonious models.

tion (AE).

Finally, the active

experimentation mode is

Let us take experiential learners as an illustration.

directed toward the practical and concrete (like the

By directly involving themselves in new experiences,

CE) and rational thinking (like the AC). But its

these learners enter the first phase of the cycle, des-orientation is toward results: influencing people’s

ignated concrete experience (CE). As they observe

opinions, changing situations, and getting things

others and reflect on their own and others’ expe-

accomplished—purely pragmatic applications. This

riences, they proceed to the reflective observation

mode fosters strong organizational skills, goal

(RO) phase. Next, they attempt to assimilate their

direction, and considerable tolerance for risk.

Accommodating Different Learning Styles

231

Now visualize a graph with two axes: the x-axis logical framework, from which they extrapolate

from active (on left) to reflective (on right) and the theories and

generalizations. These

individuals

y-axis from abstract (at bottom) to concrete (at top).

focus on abstract ideas and concepts rather than

This arrangement places the concrete experience

people or practical applications. Many scientists and mode at twelve o’clock, the reflective observation

academicians are assimilators.

at three o’clock, abstract conceptualization at six

In reality, people’s learning styles may shift from

o’clock, and active experimentation at nine o’clock.

situation to situation, encompassing an area that spans Connecting the modes by arrows going clockwise,

two and even three quadrants. So take care not to

you can see Kolb’s theoretical learning cycle.

categorize yourself or others too rigidly.

Derived Learning Styles

Teaching to Kolb’s Types

Kolb went a step further to define a “learning style”

When designing a course, you may want to build

and a “learning type” in each quadrant:

in a variety of opportunities for students to board

•

Accommodators rely heavily on concrete ex-

the learning cycle: some lessons that are experiential perience and active experimentation. They enjoy

and tangible, some reflective and intuitive, some log-engaging in new and challenging experiences, partic-

ical and conceptual, and others applied and practical.

ularly those requiring hands-on involvement. They

The teaching recommendations that follow were de-

attack problems intuitively with a trial-and-error

veloped by Smith and Kolb (1986) and Harb, Terry,

methodology and quite effectively teach themselves

Hurt, and Williamson (1995).

through an inquiry-based discovery process. They

Accommodators benefit most from these learning tend to gravitate toward action-oriented careers such activities:

as marketing and sales.

•

Group work

•

Divergers use concrete experience as well as

•

Discussions and brainstorming sessions

reflective observation. They examine situations

•

Projects

from different angles and like to be personally, even

•

Solving open-ended problems

emotionally, involved with their work. They crave

•

Essay tests and assignments

to know why things happen as they do. Their major

•

Inquiry-guided activities

motivator is personal meaning, never competition.

•

Making presentations

They tend to move toward service fields, the arts,

•

Experiential methods such as field trips, role plays, and the social sciences.

simulations, the case method, problem-based

•

Convergers rely primarily on their skills of learning, and service-learning

abstract conceptualization and active experimentation in their learning. They are often characterized as aso-Divergers respond best to:

cial and unemotional, preferring to work with things

rather than people. What grabs their attention is how

•

Discussions of all types—whole class, small group,

things work. They enjoy assignments that require

and one-on-one

practical applications, experimentation, and, in the

•

Group projects

end, precise, concrete answers. In general, many en-

•

Essay tests and writing assignments

gineers and computer scientists fall into this category.

•

Emotionally moving lectures and stories, and in-

•

Assimilators combine abstract conceptual-

teractive lectures

ization and reflective observation into a style that

•

Experiential methods such as field trips, role plays, excels at organization and synthesis. They specialize simulations, the case method, problem-based

in integrating large quantities of data into a concise, learning, and service-learning

232

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Convergers are most successful when taught by: considered . . . . Everyone who uses the VARK loves it, and that’s a great thing to be able to say. So it is

•

Demonstrations

obviously striking a chord with almost everyone who

•

Inquiry-guided laboratories and other activities

uses it. (Quoted in Fleming & Baume, 2006, p. 6)

•

Objective homework problems and exams

•

Computer-aided instruction and simulations

You can take the VARK inventory free of

•

Assignments involving defining and justifying a

charge at www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=

model

questionnaire, a section of the extensive VARK

•

Field trips and case studies

website.

Finally, assimilators prefer:

Read/Write

•

Logical, factual lectures

•

Instructor demonstrations and

modeling of

Students with a read/write learning style excel when

problem-solving methods (live or video)

asked to read and write about a topic. They rely

•

Textbook reading assignments

heavily on recognizing logical, deductive relation-

•

Independent data gathering and analysis research

ships, such as the classic outline form, and they can or library research

easily find pattern and flow in a well-constructed

lecture or textbook. Their memory structure is more

Three of these four types rely heavily on

abstract than that of the other styles. They store

student-active teaching to learn the material. As-

information as organized sets of symbols, such as

similators do less only because they read and listen

outlines, equations, diagrams, and typologies. As you actively on their own.

can imagine, these learners do well in the tradi-

tional educational setting. The reading and lecture

format so common in classrooms is tailor-made

FLEMING AND MILLS’S

for them, and they need no special instructional

SENSORY-BASED LEARNING

considerations.

STYLE TYPOLOGY

Auditory

Australian scholars Fleming and Mills (1992) ad-

vanced another learning-styles framework that uses

Students with an auditory learning style perform

a

more

descriptive classification nomenclature.

well when they are given information in a form they

Here, the terminology reflects the preferred physical can hear, such as a discussion, a lecture, a debate, or sense involved in learning, as reflected in the four

another type of verbal presentation. In fact, they learn categories of read-write, auditory (“aural”), visual, best when they can hear themselves express an idea.

and kinesthetic. Using the first letter of each type

Consequently they benefit from most standard teach-

(R for “read-write”), Fleming and Mills dubbed

ing methods, especially those that require student

their typology “VARK.” The model presumes that

participation. As they process and store information

individuals rely on more than one style. Svinicki

in chronological relationships, they thrive in fields tested it statistically and found it has weak validity but that base data and analysis on stories, cases, and

endorses its use outside of research:

events, such as history, political science, law, business administration, and literature. Many also have musical Its strength lies in its educational value for help-talent. Strong auditory learners can retrieve knowl-

ing people think about their learning in multiple

edge in “memory tapes” and are aided by mnemonic

ways and giving them options they might not have

devices.

Accommodating Different Learning Styles

233

Visual

readings. You can add visual components like graphs

Students who lean more toward visual and kinesthetic

and histograms to the day’s lesson. You can chart

styles often face difficulties in the traditional college complex, logical relationships among overlapping

classroom. Unless they also have a digital or auditory concepts with circle (Venn) diagrams. You can draw

processing style on which to rely, they are often left flowcharts of multistage assignments, such as the

behind in lecture-based courses, through no fault of

essay-writing process, problem-solving strategies, and their own. So additional forms of stimuli may be nec-laboratory procedures. You can even flow-chart your

essary in order to optimize their learning experience.

student learning outcomes from the beginning to the

Individuals with a primarily visual learning

end of the term (see Chapter Two). Since students

style rely on their sight to take in information. They have such trouble taking notes on class discussions,

work well with maps and rarely forget a face, a scene, you might mind-map the ideas as they emerge—that

or a place. Some gravitate to artistic fields where

is, diagram the discussion with the central theme

they can express their flair for design and color.

as the hub with lines coming off it to the related

Consistent with their visual nature, these individuals arguments and points the students make. Then

organize knowledge in terms of spatial interrelation-

draw secondary lines off each argument or point

ships among ideas and store it graphically as static or to the supporting evidence presented (see Chapter

animated snapshots, flowcharts, pictures, or diagrams.

Twenty-Six).

Some even have photographic memories.

With little additional preparation, you can easily

Kinesthetic

supplement your teaching presentations with aids for

visual learners. The object is to portray knowledge in Those with this learning style benefit most by doing.

two-dimensional spatial relationships that reflect the It uses active involvement as the primary learning

logical, chronological, or mechanical links among

mode. Those strong in this style demonstrate superb

concepts, processes, and events. The less “space”

eye-hand-mind coordination and natural-born me-

and more connections between two ideas, the more

chanical ability. In the recent past, these learners were closely related the visual learner will comprehend

often maligned and rarely taught their way except in

and remember them.

shop or home economics courses. While mechanical

Among the visuals that this learning style ap-

skills may seem narrow and unintellectual, kinesthetic preciates is the graphic syllabus (see Chapter Three), individuals make excellent surgeons, dentists, health as well as illustrations, pictures, diagrams, flowcharts, care professionals, musicians, technicians, engineers, graphs, concept and mind maps, graphic models and

and architects. In processing information, they

organizers, and graphic metaphors. This last type of

easily grasp physical interrelationships and store

graphic is a drawing of an analogical relationship, such knowledge as experiences with both physical and

as a sketch of a building to represent a Marxian view emotional components.

of society, with the basement as the “substructure”

You can reach strongly kinesthetic students

and the floors above as the “superstructure.”

using the same techniques as you do for strongly

Visual teaching tools are readily available: the

visually oriented students, as both types relate well chalkboard, presentation slides, overhead transparen-to graphic representations of themes and concepts.

cies, and handouts. Some instructional computer

But since kinesthetic processors also rely heavily on software and videotapes also feature outstanding

inductive reasoning, they especially benefit from mul-graphical depictions of

mathematical, physical,

tiple examples and hands-on experiences from which

and biological relationships. Using only the least

they can formulate general hypotheses and principles

expensive options, you can diagram the relation-

on their own. Thus, they learn best from experiential ships among major points in your lectures and the

and inductive teaching methods like simulations, role

234

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

plays, field trips, service-learning, inquiry-guided

Zywno, 2003). You can also take it free of charge at

activities and laboratories, case studies, and problem-www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html.

based learning, all of which are explained in earlier Felder and Silverman (1988) conceive of learn-chapters.

ing styles as four independent, cognitive continua,

Physical models and analogies are also impor-

each anchored by pure types. One dimension iden-

tant learning tools to these students. For instance, an tifies how a student prefers to process information

English instructor faced a strongly kinesthetic student and knowledge: actively through physical activity or with little concept of how to organize the assigned

discussion or reflectively through introspection. An-literature review, even after being given oral instruc-other pertains to the sensory mode in which a student tions. So the instructor decided to use a mechanical

prefers to receive information and knowledge: verbally illustration, which worked. With paper and pencil in

in written or spoken words or mathematical equations

hand, she compared the introduction, which contains

or visually in pictures, graphics, videos, and demon-the thesis, to the motor that drives the paper. The

strations. A third continuum considers the type of

next paragraph contains the points supporting one

information that a student most readily perceives: in-view, like a series of pulleys all turning in the same ternally based intuitive experiences (hunches, insights, direction. The direction of the paper then shifts to

possibilities) or externally based sensory experiences.

the opposing arguments and evidence, much as a me-

The final dimension focuses on how a student ac-

chanical system changes direction if the drive belts are quires understanding: sequentially in incremental steps twisted. Finally, in the conclusion, the writer chooses or globally in holistic leaps.

to endorse one direction (side of the argument) or

These styles are not meant to be rigid categories.

the other.

A student may have a strong, moderate, or weak lean-

A section of the VARK website, www.vark-

ing toward one end of a continuum or the other.

learn.com/english/page.asp?p=helpsheets, lists the

Furthermore, she may lean in one direction for some

most appealing or easiest ways for each of the four

tasks and in the other direction for other tasks. The sensory-based styles to process new knowledge, study

most effective learners and problem solvers tend to

it, and display mastery of it. Refer your students to cluster around the middle, functioning well in polar

this source.

styles. Those who strongly prefer one style or another may miss important aspects of learning, such as crucial details, the big picture, alternative approaches, cogni-FELDER AND SILVERMAN’S INDEX

tive shortcuts, or possible applications.

The following section provides detailed expla-

OF LEARNING STYLES

nations of these styles and how to teach to them

from Felder (1993), Felder and Silverman (1988), and

While Felder and Silverman (1988) proposed their

Felder and Soloman (n.d.-b).

learning styles model for engineering students, it

applies to learners across the disciplines. Furthermore, it is the most scientifically grounded framework of

Active Versus Reflective

all the major models. The forty-four-item Index

Active learners gain the most out of doing something

of Learning Styles (ILS) questionnaire, developed

with the material—discussing it, explaining it to

in 1991 by Felder and Soloman (n.d.-a), has high

others, applying it, trying things out, experimenting to moderate construct validity, internal consis-with how things work, or bouncing off ideas.

tency reliability, test-retest reliability, total item They like to solve problems, evaluate ideas, and

correlation, and interscale correlation (Felder & design and conduct experiments. They learn best

Spurlin, 2005; Litzinger, Lee, Wise, & Felder, 2007; from group work, discussion, problem solving, and

Accommodating Different Learning Styles

235

experiential and inquiry-guided activities. To study

and chalkboard writing. If they try, they can figure

most productively, they should follow up their

out how to take decent lecture notes. To prepare for

reading with study group members who take turns

tests, they should write summaries or outlines in their explaining different parts of the material to each

own words or join study groups where they can listen

other. To retain material, they should associate it

to others explain the material and explain it out loud with ways it can be applied. To prepare for tests, they themselves.

should work in a group organized around guessing

Visual learners are more on their own to make

the questions and answering them.

sense of the barrage of verbally presented material

By contrast, reflective learners need some quiet

they receive. They have to find or create their own

time to process the material internally. With a lit-

graphic representations of the material. They should

tle thinking time, they can generate good ideas and

also highlight their books and notes in various colors theories, make up viable models, define problems ef-representing different topics or themes. But we can

fectively, and propose possible solutions. While group do a great deal in our classes to help them by first

and experiential activities do not facilitate their learn-preparing some graphic representations of the mate-

ing, we as instructors need only build in brief pauses rial ourselves, then coaching our students in preparin the middle of lectures or after classroom activities to ing their own. For more specific recommendations,

allow these learners to process the material. We might see the section on the visual learning style in the

also pose reflection questions such as, “What does this VARK framework, as well as Chapter Twenty-Six.

all mean?” or “What do you think was the point of

Since most of our students are visual learners, the ef-this activity?” During recitation and discussion, we

forts we make to reach them can raise our overall class should allow at least several seconds of wait time af-performance.

ter each question. To study most effectively, reflective learners should work alone and practice summarizing

Intuitive Versus Sensing

the material and making up and answering questions

about it.

Since higher education tends to emphasize concepts

and principles, intuitive learners have an edge up because they grasp and remember abstractions, relation-

Verbal Versus Visual

ships, generalizations, and mathematical formulas

All people learn better when they receive informa-

quite easily. They tend to work quickly and ef-

tion and knowledge in both the verbal and the visual

ficiently and to be innovative and imaginative in

modes, and the most facile learners can accommo-

the way they conceptualize problems and interpret

date input in either mode. But some learners process

material. However, they dislike repetition, standard

and remember material better if it is presented in one procedures, detail work, “plug-and-chug” courses,

mode or the other. Visual learners get more out of

and the memorization of facts.

flowcharts, diagrams, mind and concepts maps, pic-

Sensing learners work best with whatever in-

tures, diagrams, graphs, time lines, matrices, videos, formation they receive through their senses from the

animations, and demonstrations, while verbal learn-

outside world. So they are comfortable memorizing

ers find it easier to process symbols such as words,

facts, patiently observing phenomena, carefully tend-

whether spoken and written, and equations.

ing to details, doing routine assignments, and solv-

Higher education is designed by and for verbal

ing problems by well-established methods. Like active learners, even though they comprise a minority of

learners, they are practical minded and can remem-

the student population. They benefit from listening to ber material better when they can see its connections lectures, from writing exercises and assignments, and to the real world in examples or applications. Often

from reading books, handouts, PowerPoint outlines,

averse to complexities and surprises, they can have a

236

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

lot of trouble on tests that ask them to do more than in novel and creative ways, even if they can’t explain recognize and regurgitate unless they get a lot of prac-how they have done it. Interestingly, we can help

tice performing the higher-order cognitive operations global learners the same way we can help their

that are required. As instructors, we need to furnish sequential counterparts—by helping them see the

that practice for sensing students and to pepper our

relationships between new material and what they

lessons with plenty of examples and real-world appli-

already know.

cations of concepts and principles. We can also advise Global learners may not know who they are,

these learners to study by translating the abstract and and just their realizing their need to grasp a sub-general into the concrete and specific, both alone and ject holistically can help them find ways to facilitate in study groups.

their gestalt. For instance, skimming through a read-

ing assignment before actually reading it (see Chapter Twenty-Three) provides a valuable content overview.

Sequential Versus Global

Frequently relating new to previously learned mate-

Sequential learners represent the majority of students.

rial helps a learner capitalize on prior flashes of un-They learn most easily in linear steps, with each

derstanding. In addition, global learners should try

step logically following the one before. They solve

immersing themselves in one subject at a time for long problems the same way, following a logical series of

study sessions instead of spending short periods with steps. While most of us organize our courses sequen-each subject every night.

tially, we can put these learners at a disadvantage if While neither Felder nor his coauthors mention

we skip steps or seemingly jump from topic to topic

it, global learners may also profit from some of the

without making explicit connections between them.

same graphic representations of the material that vi-

Many textbooks make the same mistake. Sequential

sual learners do—that is, flowcharts, diagrams, graphs, learners study best when they outline the lecture and mind and concept maps, matrices, pictures, and ani-the readings using their own organizational scheme.

mations. As we will see in Chapter Twenty-Six, such

Since they can miss the relationships among topics

graphics can convey the big picture more efficiently

or between new and previously learned knowledge,

and effectively than words ever can.

their learning can be pretty shallow. So we should

pose study and discussion questions that make them

see these connections. We should also encourage

PARALLELS ACROSS LEARNING

them to enhance their understanding and retention

STYLE MODELS

of the material by making these links on their own.

While we are struggling to fully grasp new

Clearly none of the three model translates neatly

material, we all experience sudden insights and ges-

into another. VARK and Felder and Silverman’s ILS

talts that make the pieces fall into place. However,

share the visual style, and the former’s Kinesthetic

before the flash, sequential learners are usually able to style resembles the latter’s Active style. Remember,

work with the material at some level—enough to do

however, that Felder and Silverman’s model posits

the homework and pass the tests. What marks global

four independent dimensions on which learners

learners is their inability to do much of anything

vary, not types of learners. VARK’s Read-Write

with the material until they have made the grand

style is roughly comparable to Felder and Silverman’s leap to complete understanding. In the meantime,

Verbal combined with the Sequential. Some parallels

they simply absorb new material as unrelated pieces.

can also be drawn between Kolb’s and Felder and

Once they grasp the big picture, they may still have

Silverman’s models. The Diverger suggests a blend

trouble with the details, but they may be able to

of Reflective, Intuitive, and Global learning; the

solve complex problems quickly or synthesize ideas

Assimilator appears to be a mixture of the Reflective,

Accommodating Different Learning Styles

237

Sensing, and Sequential; the Converger combines

learning strategies and rely on multiple input modes.

the Active and Sensing; and the Accommodator has

In fact, all students learn more and better from

features of the Active and Intuitive. In summary, each multiple-sense, multiple-method instruction. As

learning style model is distinctive in the cognitive, noted in Chapter One, people learn best when

experiential, or sensory variables it identifies as

they receive the new material multiple times and in

relevant to learning. Each has different theoretical

different ways—that is, through multiple senses and

underpinnings, and one cannot collapse into another.

modes that use different parts of their brain (Kress, It is not surprising, then, that the models vary in their Jewitt, Ogborn, & Charalampos, 2006; Vekiri, 2002).

scientific currency, the Felder-Silverman framework

Teaching to multiple styles and modes can also help

carrying the most. For research purposes, it is the

you revitalize lesson plans and classroom presentations best choice. As heuristic devices to encourage more

that have become routine through repetition. Adding

effective teaching, all the models have value. Draw

visual and kinesthetic components, inquiry-guided

inspiration from the one or two that resonate most

activities, group work, and experiential learning may with you.

take some time and effort, but the change can avert

burnout.

To maximize all of your students’ learning and

MULTISENSORY, MULTIMETHOD

your own professional fulfillment, try to use a rich

TEACHING: MOST EFFECTIVE

variety of teaching techniques and learning media in

FOR ALL

your courses. In addition, acquaint your students with the broad range of learning and studying strategies.

Whatever learning style model you favor, it is

Bringing this variety and flexibility into your teaching important to remember that the students in your

is the real value of all the learning style models.

classes aren’t one type or another. They use multiple

C H A P T E R 26

Using Visuals to Teach

Wehumanshavereliedonoursightforsur- symbols.Purevisualimages,unfetteredbytext,con-vival more than any other sense. Through

vey information more directly, efficiently, and quickly.

most of the ages, we were dependent on it

Visuals, then, can serve our instructional

for hunting, fishing, gathering, making fire and tools, purposes very effectively. They come in many

determining the edible versus the poisonous, identi-

forms—flowcharts, diagrams, graphs, tables, matrices, fying and avoiding predators, planting and harvesting, pictures, drawings, figures, even animations—offering and reading the sky for the time of day and time

countless options for depicting course material. They of year. At some point, we used our sight to fash-can be created and displayed on a computer, but

ion shelters, clothing, and personal decorations and to they can be just as powerful when hand-drawn.

paint animals on walls of our caves. Even if our eyes We can provide them to help students learn and to

could never compete with the eagle’s, we were able

become accustomed to using visuals, so they can go

to distinguish colors, shapes, and distances rather well on to develop graphic representations of their own

for a mammal. Besides, we didn’t enjoy the olfactory

understanding of the subject matter.

or auditory sentience of so many of our four-legged

Chapters Two and Three introduced two visual

neighbors. In time, after we refined spoken language

teaching tools: the outcomes map for showing your

and invented the story, we added a strong oral com-

students’ progression through learning outcomes in

ponent to our culture. But once we devised writing

your course and the graphic syllabus for displaying

and later printing, we relied more on sight for com-

the topical organization of your course (Nilson,

munication. Still, reading and writing aren’t quite as 2007a). Both commonly take the form of a flowchart

effortless as spotting a lion. We need the left side

or diagram to illustrate the sequencing of outcomes

of our cerebrum to interpret the symbols our eyes

or topics over time. Like the most powerful visuals

are seeing and to translate our thoughts into visual

we will examine in this chapter, they provide

239

240

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

students with the big picture of your course and the

visual-spatial systems, respectively (Paivio, 1971).

internal structure of its major components, either

Recent neurological findings that the brain processes outcomes or topics. As the next section details, these and stores verbal and visual-spatial information in

visual schemata can give students the scaffolding they separate cognitive systems have lent physiological

need to better understand and remember the learning

evidence to this theory (Vekiri, 2002). So when

process you have planned for them and your course

presented with complementary text or audio and

content.

visuals, learners process it twice, through both

systems, without overloading their working memory

(Moreno & Mayer, 1999). As a result, they retain the WAYS THAT VISUALS ENHANCE

material better and longer and can access and retrieve LEARNING

more easily than they can when they learn it in just

one mode using just one system (Clark & Paivio,

The evidence that graphics of all kinds facilitate

1991; Kosslyn, 1994; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer comprehension, transfer, and retention of course

& Sims, 1994; Paivio, 1971, 1990; Paivio & Csapo, material has generated a large body of research and

1973; Paivio, Walsh, & Bons, 1994; Svinicki, 2004; several sizable literature reviews (for example, Vekiri, Tigner, 1999; Vekiri, 2002).

2002; Winn, 1991). Many of the studies center

Another way of interpreting dual-coding theory

around specific visual tools, such as concept maps and is with reference to brain hemispheres. As the left side mind maps, and these will be summarized in the next

of the brain processes verbal symbols and the right

section on the leading types of graphics. Other re-

side visuals, material presented in both modes activate search focuses on multimedia learning (Mayer, 2005).

both sides of the brain, roughly doubling the number

More generally, Marzano (2003) documents that

of neurons firing and synapses forming.

“nonlinguistic representations” of material, which

Of course, the learning and comprehension

include graphics, images, metaphors, and art forms,

benefits accrue only if the student receives the verbal have an effect size on learning of 0.75, meaning that and visual versions together and is able to integrate students exposed to them score 0.75 standard devi-them cognitively (Mayer, 2005). In addition, the

ations higher on tests than students not so exposed.

visual must clearly and accurately depict the verbal.

This effect size is comparable to that of collaborative learning and reinforcement and feedback—too broad

The Visual Argument Theory:

and powerful to be due to the subset of students

Greater Efficiency

with visual and global learning styles (see Chapter

According to this theory, visuals work so effectively Twenty-Five). So we must turn to cognitive psy-because, compared to text, they convey information

chology to explain how visuals work for all learners.

more efficiently—that is, visual information requires Specifically, we will look at dual-coding theory, the less working memory and fewer cognitive transforma-visual argument theory, and cognitive theory.

tions to process and draw inferences from (Larkin & Simon, 1987; Robinson, Katayama, DuBois, & DeDual-Coding Theory: Redundancy

vaney, 1998; Robinson & Kiewra, 1995; Robinson & and Reinforcement

Molina, 2002; Robinson & Schraw, 1994; Robinson

Dual-coding theory addresses how visuals work in

& Skinner, 1996; Waller, 1981; Winn, 1987). In other conjunction with text, which is typically a mode

words, it is less taxing on the mind to derive meaning in which students receive material. It posits that

from graphics than from words. In addition, a good

the human mind has two memories, the semantic

graphic does a much better job than text of (1) inducand the episodic, corresponding to the verbal and

ing learners to attend to the conceptual relationships

Using Visuals to Teach

241

rather than just memorize terms; (2) enabling them to of room for misunderstandings, shifts in meaning,

recognize patterns among concepts; (3) helping them

and just plain error. In the meantime, the mind

elaborate their cognitive schemata by inferring new,

is too occupied to think very much about the

complex relationships; and (4) helping them integrate material it is translating, such as to link it to prior new knowledge into their existing cognitive struc-knowledge, question it, draw inferences from it, trace tures (Hyerle, 1996; Robinson et al., 1998; Robinson

its implications, or apply it toward solving a problem.

& Kiewra, 1995; Robinson & Schraw, 1994; RobinGoing back over the text to find specific information son & Skinner, 1996; Winn, 1991).

also takes more time and cognitive energy than does

According to Larkin and Simon (1987), visu-

locating it on a graphic. The reader has to search

als offer “perceptual enhancement” by communica-

through paragraphs, if not pages, or refer to the

ting information through both their individual com-

Contents page or the index (Larkin & Simon, 1987; ponents and the spatial organization of those compo-Veriki, 2002).

nents. As a result, they allow learners to process all the McMaster University professor Dale Roy (cited

relevant concepts and the relationships among them

in Gedalof, 1998) demonstrated the superior efficacy

simultaneously as a whole. This ability facilitates un-of graphics on a faculty audience, a group highly

derstanding because bodies of knowledge are typically skilled in processing text. He asked participants to

structured as a hierarchy of concepts with relation-

prepare a brief oral presentation, which included de-

ships among them. So just showing learners a picture

veloping one text-based and one visual transparency.

of this organization teaches them a great deal about

After the participants delivered their minilesson, he the nature of knowledge—for one, that it is not a list had the rest of the audience reconstruct it. Consis-of loosely linked ideas but a tightly structured web

tently the faculty were able to reproduce almost all

of interrelated categories and principles. In addition, of the visual material but no more than half of the

the mind need not interpret or infer the conceptual

text-based presentation.

interrelationships because they are transparently displayed in the spatial arrangements, the shapes of the Cognitive Theory: The Big Picture

enclosures, the types of lines, the directions of the arrows, the colors, and any other graphic features the

The “How Structure Increases Learning” section

designer may use to distinguish causal links and direc-in Chapter One already addressed the critical

tion, strength of relationship, level of generality, and importance of learners’ seeing the organized big

the like.

picture of knowledge, which includes recognizing

Contrast the relatively effortless, holistic learning patterns in how the world works. It is having this

that visuals allow with the slower and more compli-

big picture of our field that makes us experts. In

cated process of extracting information from printed

our mind’s eye, this structure resembles a complex

material. Text unfolds components and interrelation-

web of patterns that our contemporary and ancestral

ships among them linearly, sequentially, one piece

colleagues have identified and verbalized. It equips us at a time, as though they comprise a list. The mind

with an intricate filing system that enables us to easily must then interpret the pieces and connections and,

assimilate new information and to store and retrieve

to integrate and retain the knowledge, reconstruct

from a vast collection of concepts, facts, data, and

the hierarchical organization, hopefully discerning

principles (Alexander, 1996; Anderson, 1993; Carey,

the superordinate from the subordinate concepts, the

1985; Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982; Novak, 1977; Reif more general and abstract from the more specific

& Heller, 1982; Royer, Cisero, & Carlo, 1993). We and concrete, exactly the way the text intended. The

developed this schema over many years of intensive

task demands a great deal of working memory and

study—probably the hard way without the help of

several cognitive transformations, allowing plenty

conceptual maps.

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TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Without such a valid and robust mental struc-

this scaffolding—especially at the introductory level, ture, our students are disciplinary novices. They

where they have little prior knowledge of the sub-

bring to our courses little background knowledge,

ject matter on which to map new knowledge—before

no filing system for new knowledge, and often

we elaborate it with details, conditions, and qualifica-faulty models and misconceptions about the subject

tions (Ausubel, 1968; Carlile & Jordan, 2005; Zull, matter (Svinicki, 2004). After all, the mind is so

2002). In addition, we should help students become

wired to seek patterns that it can make mistakes in its aware of any faulty mental models they may harbor

quest. Students are unfamiliar with the hierarchy of

and guide them in reconciling these with more ac-

concepts and principles, cannot discern patterns and

curate cognitive structures. Specifically, we can give generalizations, and lack the algorithms that facilitate them practice in reinterpreting their prior observa-applying knowledge to solving conceptual problems

tions and experiences. Otherwise, if all we impart are (DeJong & Ferguson-Hessler, 1996; Kozma, Russell, masses of content, they will graduate mentally un-Jones, Marx, & Davis, 1996). As a result, they wander changed and uneducated, with only memory traces

through a knowledge base picking up pieces of it

of their college years.

on a superficial level, memorizing isolated facts and Because mental structures of knowledge are so

terms, and using trial-and-error to solve problems

crucial to our students’ learning, we need to convey

and answer questions (Glaser, 1991). What they

them in the most transparent and efficient way possi-

need to advance beyond novice is an empirically

ble. We know that the cognitive models of experts like grounded big picture of the hierarchical structure of ourselves look like hierarchical networks of complexly the body of knowledge—one convincing enough to

interrelated concepts and principles. Many types of

override their misconceptions, as well as accurate and visuals are similarly structured to display component comprehensive enough to accommodate new knowl-parts in hierarchical or weblike arrangements. There-

edge and multiple conceptual networks (Baume &

fore, well-crafted graphics should do an excellent job Baume, 2008; Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog,

of depicting disciplinary schemata. The next section

1982). This is their entrée into expert thinking and

examines four types that are suitable to the task.

a framework for deep, meaningful learning. In fact,

students can’t really learn and get beyond memoriz-

ing without it. The mind depends on organization;

TYPES OF VISUALS FOR LEARNING

it acquires and stores new knowledge only if it

perceives its organization and its logical place within Ausubel (1968) coined the term advance organizer

the mental structure of prior knowledge (Anderson,

more than four decades ago to apply to any graphic

1984; Baume & Baume, 2008; Bransford, Brown,

that would offer an opening overview of a lesson,

& Cocking, 1999; Reif & Heller, 1982; Rhem,

whether a flowchart, diagram, chart, table, matrix,

1995; Royer et al., 1993; Svinicki, 2004; Zull, 2002).

web, map, figure, or something else. In this section

While global learners may need this schema up front

we focus on the major types of graphics that spatially more than other learning style types (see Chapter

display the relationships among ideas and concepts.

Twenty-Five), cognitive theory tells us that we are all Such visuals can serve as an advance organizer,

global learners as we approach the expert level.

a constructivist assignment for student groups or

Since the chances are very slim that our students

individuals, or a planning and memory aid for man-

will independently build such cognitive schemata in a aging projects, solving problems, running meetings,

semester or two of casual study, we would be wise to

organizing papers and presentations, integrating and

furnish them with relevant structures of our discipline, summarizing material, and even writing creative

with valid, ready-made frameworks for filing this con-works (Buzan, 1974; Svinicki, 2004; Wycoff, 1991).

tent (Kozma et al., 1996). They need to internalize

In other words, we can use graphics not only to

Using Visuals to Teach

243

help students acquire and retain knowledge but also

You can teach your students how to draw a

to teach them tools that will facilitate their work in concept map by having them follow these steps

college and beyond and engage the creativity of the

(Wandersee, 2002b):

visual-holistic side of the brain. In addition, having students draw their own graphics can make excellent

1. Identify key concepts, perhaps twelve to twenty,

homework assignments—for example, summarizing

from the readings, your last lecture, or another

their understanding of the readings or reviewing

source.

for tests—as well as challenging group activities

2. Write each concept on a small index card or

during class and even test questions. The products

sticky note.

can help you diagnose students’ misconceptions and

3. Identify the main topic or concept, and place it at assess their conceptual, analytical, and synthesis skills top center. This is called the superordinate concept.

without your having to read essays.

It is either the most inclusive, general, broad, or

abstract or the first stage in a process or sequence.

Concept Maps

4. Rank-order or cluster all the remaining ideas,

A concept is a human-defined pattern or common

called subordinate concepts, from the most in-ground across a category of objects, events, or prop-

clusive, general, broad, or abstract, placing these

erties. For instance, concepts that represent objects higher up and closer to the main concept, to

include “force,” “light,” “food,” “population,”

the most exclusive, specific, narrow or concrete,

“weather,” “pressure,” and “energy.” Examples of

placing these lower down. In the case of a process

those describing events are “rain,” “photosynthesis,”

or sequence, order the concepts chronologically.

“osmosis,” “conversion,” “fission,” and “marriage.”

The object is to structure the concepts and their

Among those designating properties are “taste,”

interrelations correctly.

“density,” “life-giving,” “volume,” and “texture.”

5. Arrange the concepts in a linkable hierarchy.

A concept map graphically displays the hierarchical

6. Draw the entire hierarchy on a piece of paper with organization of several (up to twenty or so) concepts enclosures around the concepts and linking lines

and often examples of them, from the most inclu-

that are labeled to specify the relationship. The

sive/general/broad/abstract concept at the top to the linked concepts together with the labeled link is

most exclusive/specific/narrow/concrete concepts

called a proposition. Because the map’s presumed at the bottom. Therefore, it frequently looks like a

direction is downward, arrows are not necessary.

network or spider web, typically pyramidal in overall 7. Check for cross-links (connections going across

shape, in which the lines link concepts or ideas to one the branches), draw in these links as dotted lines,

another. When Angelo and Cross (1993) suggested

and label them.

using such maps as a classroom assessment technique

(see Chapter Twenty-Eight), they described them as

Figure 26.1 shows several examples of very sim-

“drawings or diagrams showing mental connections

ple concept maps with just two or three concepts and

that students make between a major concept . . . and one or two links. In a real class, these maps would

other concepts they have learned” (p. 197). These

be only part of a larger map. Figure 26.2 elaborates

connections may be categorical, causal, or logical

the very simple map in which “population” is the su-

relationships or even comparisons and contrasts.

perordinate concept, extending it by seven additional They may also designate a process or sequence of

concepts arranged on three levels. Where a concept

events, in which case they may resemble a chain or

falls in the hierarchy depends on the lesson. In one

flowchart. Because of the many possible links, the

map a concept may be superordinate and in another

lines between concepts should usually be labeled to

subordinate. As Figure 26.3 illustrates, “photosynthe-specify the relationship.

sis” may be on the lowest (fourth) level in a concept

244

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Figure 26.1

Examples of Very Simple Concept Maps

2. The number of valid propositions (links between

concepts)

Weather

3. The number of valid levels in the hierarchy

Population

4. The number of valid cross-links

such as

5. The number of valid examples

described by

Rain

Density

Therefore, you can instruct students to draw a

map with a given number of concepts interrelated

Rite-of-Passage

with a given number of links, spanning a given

number of hierarchical levels, with a given number of e.g.

cross-links and examples. Novak and Gowin (1984),

who devised the leading scoring model for concept

Marriage

maps, recommends giving one point for each valid

link, five points for each valid level, ten points for Pressure

each valid cross-link, and one point for each valid

example. Quicker still is a computer-based technique

defined as

that scores maps by the number of links and the

Force

per unit

Volume

geometrical distances between concepts (Taricani & Clariana, 2006).

Many researchers have found that concept

map that starts with “energy,” ranking below “light”

maps facilitate students’ mastery of content and

and “life-giving,” but “photosynthesis” can also be a development of cognitive skills. In fact, concept

superordinate concept, in which case “light” may be

maps have proven their value in some of the most

subordinate.

challenging subjects, such as accounting (Leauby

Concept maps are quite easy to write instruc-

& Brazina, 1998), applied statistics (Schau & tions for and to assess, which is why they make good

Mattern, 1997), biology (Briscoe & LaMaster, 1991; gradable assignments and tests. The key evaluative di-Cliburn, 1990; Kinchin, 2000, 2001; Wallace &

mensions are:

Mintzes, 1990), chemistry (Regis & Albertazzi,

1996), conceptual astronomy (Zeilik et al., 1997),

1. The number of concepts included, unless you

geoscience (Rebich & Gauthier, 2005), marine

provide them

ecology (Beaudry & Wilson, 2010), mathematics

Figure 26.2

Concept Map of ‘‘Population’’ with a Total of Nine Concepts Population

described by

Rates of Increase

Rates of Decrease

Density

defined as

how increased

how decreased

Birth

Immigration

Mortality

Emigration

Number

per sq mile/km

Using Visuals to Teach

245

Figure 26.3

Two Simple Concept Maps Illustrating

Of course, the effectiveness of concept maps,

How Concepts in One Map Can Change Levels in Another

like every other teaching tool, depends on how

Map

it is used, and instructors have often maximized

their interactive, constructivist potential by having Energy

students develop them along with the instructor

or in peer groups, as well as alone. When students

one form is

draw the maps, they are actively constructing their

Light

own knowledge (Kinchin, 2000, 2001), clarifying

and organizing it (Hoffman et al., 2002; McGaghie

which has this property

et al., 2000), reinforcing their understanding of the material, and integrating it with prior knowledge

Life-Giving

(Plotnick, 2001). In addition, they are making

explicit to both the instructor and themselves any

which describes

misconceptions they may have and the progress they

are making in correctly and complexly structuring

Photosynthesis

the subject material (Romance & Vitale, 1997;

Vojtek & Vojtek, 2000). Concept maps work well for Photosynthesis

most knowledge construction tasks because all but

the process variety presume an overall hierarchical

requires

requires

structure of carefully integrated elements (Anderson, 1984; Leichhardt, 1989; Plotnick, 1996; Romance

Light

CO2

& Vitale, 1999). As we will see, mind maps presume the same but have a different look and layout.

(Brinkmann, 2003), medicine (Hoffman, Trott, &

Neely, 2002; McGaghie, McCrimmon, Mitchell,

Mind Maps

Thompson, & Ravitch, 2000; West, Pomeroy, &

Mind maps are the more colorful and whimsical

Park, 2000), and nursing (Baugh & Mellott, 1998;

cousin of concept maps. The mind-mapping method

King & Shell, 2002; Schuster, 2000; Wilkes, Cooper, was developed by Buzan (1974) for note taking.

Lewin, & Batts, 1999), among others. In Zeilik

Over the years, Ellis (2006) and authors of other

et al.’s (1997) experimental study, the astronomy

college-success books popularized it as a technique

students who developed concept maps scored higher

for organizing course material for study, review, and than the control group on three kinds of conceptual

paper writing. It follows steps similar to concept

examinations: one measuring the ability to relate

mapping:

concepts, another of multiple-choice items designed

to identify faulty models, and a third fill-in-the-blank 1. Write the central concept, topic, or idea in the

concept map. Among the skills that concept maps

center of a large piece of paper, the board, or a

are known to enhance are postsecondary reading

landscape-set screen. This is the primary idea.

comprehension (Katayama, 1997; Mealy & Nist,

2. Identify up to six or seven closely related con-

1989; Robinson & Kiewra, 1995; Robinson &

cepts, topics, or ideas (for example, subordinate

Schraw, 1994), writing (Beaudry & Wilson, 2010),

concepts, subtopics, properties, descriptors), and

critical thinking (King & Shell, 2002; Nixon-Cobb, write each of them on the end of a thick line

2005; Schuster, 2000; West et al., 2000; Wilkes et al., (with arrows) radiating from the center. Use key

1999), and problem solving (Baugh & Mellot, 1998; words only (the briefest and sharpest expression of

Beissner, 1992; Kalman, 2007; Okebukola, 1992).

the idea). These are the secondary ideas.

246

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

3. For each secondary concept, topic, or idea, iden-

extensively in his teaching. His course, the primary

tify up to six or seven closely related subordinate

idea, is graphically conveyed with a drawing of a

concepts, subtopics, or ideas (properties, descrip-

check. It has three major segments (the secondary

tors, examples, or the like), and write each of

ideas): an overview of financial markets and instru-

them on the end of a thinner line (arrows are op-

ments, symbolized by the struggle between the bear

tional) radiating from the secondary idea. Again,

and the bull; portfolio theory, represented by a briefuse key words. These are the tertiary ideas.

case full of money; and financial instruments, illus-

4. Look for cross-relationships, and draw thin lines

trated by an investment certificate. These visual repre-between related ideas.

sentations capture the major topics in an eye-catching 5. Add color, suggestive icons, and appropriate

way. The chapters addressing these topics are the

symbols. Color-code the lines and key words by

tertiary ideas.

secondary-idea branch.

Figure 26.5 shows a more elaborate, icon-rich

mind map that Biktimirov created to summarize

course material on futures contracts and make

A couple of examples will bring the power of

it memorable for his students. In the center he

mind maps to light. Figure 26.4 is a graphic syllabus represents the primary idea, types of futures contracts, of the advanced corporate finance course designed

by an Unidentified Flying Object and a crystal ball

and taught by Ernest N. Biktimirov, a finance pro-

to communicate two ideas: in a futures contract,

fessor at Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, a buyer and a seller agree on a price today for a

Canada. He has used mind maps and other visual tools

future transaction; and the prices of futures contracts Figure 26.4

Mind-Mapped Graphic Syllabus of Advanced Corporate Finance Course Source: Created by Ernest N. Biktimirov. Reprinted with his permission.

Ch. 15 Raising Capital

Capital Structure

Ch. 16 Financial Leverage

and Dividend Policy

and Capital Structure Policy

Ch. 17 Dividends and

Dividend Policy

Ch. 21 International

Corporate Finance

Risk

Management

Corporate Finance II

Ch. 25 Options and

Corporate Securities

Ch. 18 Short-Term Finance

and Planning

Working Capital

Ch. 19 Cash and Liquidity

Management

Management

Ch. 20 Credit and Inventory

Management

Using Visuals to Teach

247

Figure 26.5

Mind Map of Types of Futures Contracts

Source: Created by Ernest N. Biktimirov. Reprinted with his permission.

Crude Oil

Weather

Natural Gas

Paris July Cooling

Energy

...

...

NY Jan Heating

Coil

Canadian $

Corn

British Pound

Coffee

Food & Fibers

US Rates

...

...

Japanese Yen

Types of

Commodities

Wheat

Currencies

Futures Contracts

Cattle

A$/CS

Meats

Hogs

... Cross Rates

Pork Bellies

BP/JY

Copper

S&P 500

Gold

Nasdaq 100

Metals

Stock Indexes

...

...

Financial

Aluminum

Russell 2000

Wood

US T-bills

Lumber

...

Interest Rates

Euro$

MSFT

...

Individual Stocks

IBM

on different underlying assets help investors forecast on the commodities branch and quinary ideas on

the futures prices of these assets (E. N. Biktimirov, the financial branch. It would be easy to recast

personal communication, April 13, 2009). Radiating

this graphic as a concept map, but the end product

from the center are three lines, one for each type of wouldn’t be nearly as visually evocative without

contract (secondary ideas): commodities, of which

the icons.

there are five types (tertiary ideas); weather, which While not as well researched as concept maps,

affects cooling to heating needs all over the world

mind maps have proven to be effective learning tools

(tertiary ideas); and financial, of which there are

in business (Driver, 2001), business statistics (Sirias, four types (tertiary ideas). The connection between

2002), economics (Nettleship, 1992), executive

each idea and its visual representation is transparent education (Mento, Martinelli, & Jones, 1999),

and sometimes amusing—for example, a piggy bank

finance (Biktimirov & Nilson, 2006), marketing

symbolizing financial types of futures contracts.

(Eriksson & Hauer, 2004), and optometry (McClain, This mind map extends out to quaternary ideas

1987). In another study, fifty second- and third-year

248

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

medical students who used mind mapping as a study

1. The relative sizes of the circles reflect the relative aid improved their factual recall of their readings

importance, quantities, variable values, or level of

one week later (Farrand, Hussain, & Hennessy,

generality of the concepts.

2002). Mind maps can be graded the same way as

2. A smaller circle drawn within a larger one in-

concept maps.

dicates that the latter concept encompasses the

Although the secondary and tertiary ideas radi-

former.

ate out from the center of a mind map, this graphic

3. Partially overlapping circles mean that one con-

reflects a hierarchy of ideas. But unlike a concept

cept includes some but not all instances of the

map, it uses icons, symbols, color, and line thickness other concept.

to communicate meaning and does not normally la-

4. Superimposed circles show that the concepts are

equivalent and share all the same instances.

bel the lines. Of course, you and your students can

5. Completely separate circles denote unrelated or

mix and match features of concept and mind maps to

independent concepts.

serve your learning purposes. Similarly, graphic syl-

6. Broken circles convey that the conceptual bound-

labi and outcomes maps may also incorporate the

aries are not well understood.

visual cues of mind maps. Such colorful and whim-

7. Adding color enhances the diagram, especially

sical touches not only add fun to instructional ma-

when the colors of overlapping areas accurately

terials but also contribute to learning and retention.

reflect the combination of the circle colors.

Specifically, unexpected novelty and humor attract at-8. Detail in a diagram can be shown by projecting

tention and arouse emotions, releasing neurotransmit-

out a new diagram of an enlarged section of the

ters from the limbic system that reinforce associated original diagram (called “telescoping”).

synaptic connections (Leamnson, 2000; Mangurian,

2005; see Chapter One). Besides, such personal ex-

Venn diagrams, which illustrate overlapping

tras testify to your sense of humor, creativity, openconcepts and categories by overlapping circles,

ness to new ideas, and comfort with students and

are the most widely used kind of concept circle

yourself.

diagrams. The simplest example is two partially

overlapping circles. How much they overlap depends

on the content. If you wish to show the relationship

Concept Circle Diagrams

between deviant behavior and illegal behavior, you

The least well known of the graphics we will look

might overlap the circles about a quarter of the way

because some deviant behavior is not illegal (for

at here, concept circle diagrams illustrate the rela-

instance, cross-dressing) and some illegal behavior is tionships among concepts in terms of the distances

not deviant (for example, exceeding the speed limit

and the overlaps among circles and the relative sizes by five or ten miles per hour).

of the circles. When drawn by the instructor, they

The more complex Venn diagram showcased

can disentangle complex conceptual interrelationships in Figure 26.6 demonstrates the full potential of this for the students and serve as a memorable image.

type of graphic. It illustrates the complicated rela-

Of course, students can create their own to clarify

tionships among different classifications of explicit, their understanding of conceptual interconnections,

first-order, ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Its in which case they should also entitle their diagram

creator, Daniel D. Warner, professor of Mathemati-

and write an accompanying sentence or two to ex-

cal Sciences at Clemson University, designed it for his plain its meaning (Wandersee, 2002a).

sophomore course for engineering and science ma-

Here are some basic guidelines for creating these

jors on differential equations and his calculus course diagrams (Wandersee, 2002a):

for life science majors. He gives it to his students along

Using Visuals to Teach

249

Figure 26.6

Concept Circle Diagram (Venn Diagram)

3. Linear and not separable [ dy/dt = a – y/(b – t), a for the Classification of Explicit, First-Order, Ordinary mixing model, or dy/ dt = - m g t – b y, like an Differential Equations

object falling with air resistance]

Source: Created by Daniel D. Warner. Reprinted with his permis-4. Autonomous and not linear [ dy/ dt = r (1— y/N) sion.

y, logistic growth]

5. Autonomous and linear but not quadrature [ dy/ d t

= r y, Malthusian growth, or dy/dt = r (Ta – y), Newton’s law of cooling]

6. Quadrature and not autonomous [ dy/dt = r t + a, dy = f( t,y)

variable velocity, constant acceleration]

dt

7. Linear and separable but neither autonomous nor

a quadrature [ dy/dt = ( t + a) ( y – b)]

Separable

8. Autonomous and quadrature (a very small set, but

dy =

not empty) [ dy/dt = r, constant velocity].

g( t ) × h( y)

dt

Another type of concept circle diagram is the

context map (Hyerle, 1996), which is composed of

Autonomous

two or more concentric circles. The outer circles

dy = h( y)

dt

Quadrature

represent the contexts, settings, environments, or

dy =

frames of reference of the inner circles or the

g( t )

dt

external influences on the inner circles. For instance, sociologists sometimes use a context map to show

the different levels of socialization that affect the individual. If you place individuals in the innermost Linear

dy

circle, their primary groups—immediate and near-

= p( t) y + q( t) dt

immediate family, close friends and neighbors, and

one’s minister—occupy the closest concentric circle

because these groups have the most direct impact

on the focal person. In the next concentric circle

are secondary groups, with which an individual

may occasionally have direct contact of a more

with the assignment of constructing an example of an

formal type. These include most relatives, school and ODE that is exclusive to each portion of the diagram.

work associates, colleagues, fellow church members,

(Possible correct answers are in brackets, where a, b, distant friends, acquaintances, most neighbors, and

r, N, and Ta are constants.) As the diagram has eight people with whom one does business. While their

portions, the solution involves eight different ODEs

influence on the individual is weaker, they often

(D. D. Warner, personal communication, April 8 and

have indirect effects through members of the primary

16, 2009):

group. The outermost concentric circle represents

the broader society, which socializes the individual

1. General and neither separable nor linear [ dy/dt =

both directly—through the mass media, political

a + b cos( t) exp( y)]

institutions, law enforcement, and economic markets,

2. Separable and neither autonomous nor linear

for instance—and indirectly through its impact on

[ dy/ dt = a cos( t) sin( y)]

the secondary and primary groups.

250

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Table 26.1

Matrix Comparing and Contrasting Aspects of the Major Wars of the United States in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

Duration (Years or

Causes

How Started

Positive Effects for

Negative Effects for

Months)

United States

United States

World War I

World War II

Korean War

Vietnam War

Desert Storm

Iraq War

Since concept circle diagrams can take on sev-

particles. If used for assessment purposes, matrices are eral shapes and forms, no scoring formula is available.

easy to score on a cell-by-cell basis.

However, Wandersee (2002a) suggests several evalua-

Table 26.1 shows a data retrieval matrix com-

tive dimensions to consider when assessing a student

paring and contrasting aspects of the six major wars

product: (1) its legibility, clarity, and interpretability; in which the United States has fought during the

(2) the relevance of the concepts selected to the as-

twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The matrix asks signment; (3) the validity of the relationships shown students to identify the length of each war, the causes, among concepts; (4) the relevance of the title to the the precipitating incidents, and the positive and neg-diagram; (5) the accuracy and fit of the written expla-ative impacts on the country. The level of thinking

nation; and (6) the appropriate use of graphic options, required to complete it depends partially on what the such as color and telescoping.

students can and cannot gather directly from course

materials. For instance, if the materials have provided the effects of these wars but have not distinguished

Matrices

the favorable from the unfavorable effects, students

Matrices may be the least constructivist visual of

must evaluate the broader, longer-term ramifications

those considered here, as they are constrained by a

of each war on the country.

table-like format. Yet they can transform linear text and notes into much more useful two-dimensional

schemata that invite comparing and contrasting

THE FUTURE OF VISUALS IN

objects, concepts, or categories by any number of

TEACHING AND LEARNING

properties. As text or notes alone are not set up to

engage higher-order thinking, students usually wind

Due to the dominance of television, movies, video

up just memorizing them. Matrices also enhance

games, and the Internet, our culture has been

storage and retrieval (Atkinson et al., 1999; Derry,

deemphasizing text to communicate information

1984). Kiewra (2005) strongly recommends matrices

in favor of graphics for decades (Fischman, 2001;

as learning devices for organizing, analyzing, review-Hartman, 2006). The millennial generation has

ing, and remembering material, and he furnishes

grown up with the full dose of these visual media,

examples that display categories of literature, different and as far as we can tell, subsequent generations will schedules of psychological reinforcement, properties

too. This “visual explosion,” as Felten (2008, p. 60) of various biological species, and types of atomic

terms it, has spread from the popular culture into

Using Visuals to Teach

251

the scholarly arena. We can now use high-quality

essential skill for understanding and interpreting

digital libraries and galleries—historical, scientific, complex sets of information (Avgerinou & Ericson, and artistic—and educational resources, such as

1997; Hodgins, 2000). Such innovations represent

those archived at www.merlot.org, www.brocku

just a few of the new high-tech instructional tools,

.ca/learningobjects/flash content, www.wisc-online

the topic of the next chapter.

.com/, www.shodor.org/interactivate, and www4

One more benefit of graphics—this one

.uwm.edu/cie/learning objects.cfm?gid=55. Many

particularly important in the global village we now

of these resources showcase the power of adding

inhabit—is that they communicate across cultures.

interactivity and animation to the graphics, gener-

Many of the conventions used in visuals—such as spa-

ating many of today’s cutting-edge teaching tools in

tial proximity among closely related elements and the distance education and computer-assisted instruction: use of arrows to indicate direction or movement—

learning objects, virtual and augmented realities,

seem to be universal, anchored in the basic hu-

and simulations. These may come to dominate the

man

processes

of

visual

perception

(Tversky,

educational media, elevating visual literacy to an

1995, 2001).

C H A P T E R 27

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

Teachingatitsbestrequiresthatweconsider computersimulationsandinteractivelearningmod-every educational tool at our command to give

ules, help these students excel while reinforcing

our students the richest educational experi-

everyone’s learning.

ence possible. After focusing on a wide variety of

face-to-face teaching methods and moves, we now

turn to integrating technology into courses to en-

RELIABLE LOW-TECH TOOLS

hance students’ learning. Although hybrid and online

FOR THE CLASSROOM

courses share forms of instructional technology, this chapter does not address distance learning per se. But Let’s begin with the lowest-tech, most readily avail-there are many available books, articles, and training able visual aids. They have been around for a long

programs that do.

time, and for good reason.

As Chapter Twenty-Five points out, students

prefer different learning modalities to varying extents.

Some students learn most easily by listening and dis-

The Ubiquitous Board

cussing, some by reading and writing, others through

You and your students grew up with it. It’s in almost graphic representations, and still others by hands-on every classroom in the nation—though no classroom

experience. Since the traditional college classroom is seems to have enough of them. You might even have

strongly geared to the digital and auditory learning

one in your office. It now comes in a few colors and

styles, students who are more visually or kinestheti-

a modern, glossy white version with marker pens.

cally oriented are often at a disadvantage. Visual aids In fact, it’s so familiar to all of us in the educational and simulated experiences, ranging from low-tech

sector that we rarely consider how to use it most

chalkboards and flip charts to the most advanced

effectively. All we notice are the times when it’s used 253

254

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

ineffectively, which is when we can’t see or follow

spaces, but do connect related ideas with lines as

what is written on it.

well. Underline new terms when defining them.

Just because the board represents an old tech-

During pauses, step back to evaluate your board

nology doesn’t make it an outdated one. It holds at

work, and correct and clarify points as required.

least two benefits for our students. First, it slows us

•

Be complete in your presentation, defining criti-

down—both our speaking pace and our movement

cal new terms, giving all steps in a solution, and

through the material—giving students a few more

labeling all parts of your diagrams and technical

precious moments to follow and absorb what we are

drawings.

saying and doing. We might not notice it, but we of-

•

Practice writing while looking over your shoul-

ten speed through the material when we are working

der toward the class. At least try to avoid spending

off prepared slides or transparencies. Second, while

much time with your back to the class. During the

writing on the board, most of us do a better job of

moments that you must, don’t bother talking; your

modeling our thought processes. We explain them

students may not hear you. It is better to pause,

while they unfold. By contrast, PowerPoint slides are turn around, and explain the material while you

designed for lists of items, not cognitive processes.

are making eye contact with the class.

Below are a few guidelines for board use, which

•

Ask students occasionally whether they can see

are perhaps intuitive yet all too frequently forgotten your board work. Over an hour, your handwrit-

(Bartlett & Thomason, 1983):

ing may change, or the glare from the windows

may settle on different spots.

•

Write neatly, legibly, and large, as much as possible

•

Coordinate your words and your board work to

on a horizontal (versus diagonal) line, and only

reinforce each other. It is best to introduce new

on areas visible to all students. If board writing is material verbally, then outline it on the board,

not your forte, shift to printing. Be very careful

then explain what you have outlined. If you have

with your spelling, especially if you hold students

written out major topics or questions, point to

responsible for theirs.

each one as you shift the discussion to it. Also re-

•

Use thick chalk in a large classroom, such as “rail-

fer to the board regularly to reinforce important

road crayon.”

points.

•

Use different colors of chalk and markers for

•

Use the board to record discussion contributions.

complex diagrams and drawings to facilitate

students’ visual understanding of the parts of

You can reduce redundancy and help students

a process, stages of development, sections of a

learn to take notes on discussion.

specimen, and so on.

•

Ask the class before you erase something to make

•

Write what you can before class to save time and

sure that everyone has been able to copy it. (Ever

energy during class.

hear the horror story of the math professor who

•

Outline material on the board rather than writ-

wrote on the board with the right hand and fol-

ing sentences, and use symbols and abbreviations

lowed closely with an eraser in the left?) If some-

wherever possible. Not only does this practice save

one needs an extra moment, you might move on

you time and board space, but it also helps students

to a different part of the board, if available, or use increase their note-taking efficiency. In addition,

the pause productively to ask or answer questions.

try to write quickly so you don’t lose students’

•

Bring students to the board to display their an-

attention.

swers to problems, discussion questions, and the

•

Use the board as an organizational tool, working

like. They will be less shy about coming up if you

from far left to right and numbering points as you

begin this routine early in the term and you as-

develop them. Divide different topics with lines or

sign the problems or questions to small groups.

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

255

Students don’t mind publicly presenting a group

symbols, graphs, charts, pictures, tables, matrices,

solution.

and diagrams.

•

Avoid wearing very dark clothes on a heavy

•

Focus on only one concept in a transparency or

chalkboard-work day. Or judiciously try to avoid

document, and keep the images as simple as pos-

leaning against the chalkboard. They may call it

sible. Avoid clutter and multiple images.

“dustless” chalk, but it isn’t!

•

Use key words, not complete sentences, as head-

ings and subheadings to focus students’ attention

The Flip Chart

on concepts and relationships.

•

Keep the information on each transparency or

Heavily used at conferences and in boardrooms, the

document to a minimum, not to exceed seven

flip chart is rarely seen in a classroom. Yet it has great lines of seven words each. More than this is

teaching potential in smaller classes, where it has some difficult for students to process. Furthermore,

advantages. For one, you can write out much of your

the print should be large and clearly legible—at

material in advance and in any color marker. Then

least three-sixteenths of an inch character height.

you can annotate it and add to it during class. For

Smaller print may be hard to read from the

another benefit, you can preserve the material, both

back of even a small room. For a substantial data

what you prepare and what evolves during a class,

set, you may wish to project just a title and to

from term to term. Finally, rather than erase, you can distribute handouts with the actual data—the

tear off pages and tape them wherever you want. It

same for complex graphs, tables, and diagrams.

may be worth the minor investment to buy your own

•

Use a pointer, such as a pencil or a laser, rather

flip chart or easel and large pad. Some of the same

than your finger.

guidelines for board use apply.

•

Never stand between the projector and the pro-

jected images. Doing so blocks the image and is

The Overhead and the Document

distracting to the class.

Projectors

An overhead projector displays on a screen only what

Overhead projectors have a few additional rules

is on a transparency, while a document projector, a

for use (Head, 1992; Rogers, 1993):

much newer technology, displays whatever is on a

transparency, piece of paper, or anything else that fits

•

Design your transparencies to project horizontally

over the plate. For the most part, computers have

on the screen rather than vertically if possible. The replaced these projectors, but they still have their

horizontal format fits better on the square screen.

place. The guidelines for their use are similar to those In fact, the screen often crops off the lower fourth

for board use. For instance, if you use marker pens

of a vertical transparency.

on your transparencies or documents, make sure that

•

Consider using overlays for sequential diagrams,

the colors you select are easily discernible, and be

such as when you want to illustrate a process

careful to allow students adequate time to assimilate or when you want to reuse some of your trans-and take notes on the projected material. These

parencies in other contexts. Mathematics, physics,

projectors have additional intricacies and guidelines and economics present excellent opportunities

for effective use (Head, 1992; Rogers, 1993), which

for overlaying transparencies. Start with the basic

we will see apply to presentation software slides

axes, add the curves, then add symbols and expla-

as well:

nations. The biological sciences often use overlays

to show a succession of specimen sections.

•

Use images and graphics freely. These projectors

•

Eliminate glare by using tinted transparencies in-

are perfect for showing concept and mind maps,

stead of the standard clear ones. A soft yellow film

256

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

is particularly easy on the eyes. Brighter colors

students to experience distant times, places, and

such as green or red can be interjected for em-

events to which they lack direct access. For another

phasis.

example, a Web-based simulation may give students

•

Turn off the projector lamp when not in use, even

the chance to perform lab experiments and proce-

if you are still talking. This way students stay fo-

dures that would be too dangerous or too expensive

cused on what you are saying instead of the glaring

to do in reality, such as surgeries, hazardous chemical empty screen.

procedures, and molecular biology experiments.

•

A technology may provide the best available

or the only realistic means for you to demonstrate

THE CHOICE OF HIGH-TECH

a phenomenon. For instance, chemistry and physics

ALTERNATIVES

instructors can use a digital simulation or animation to show an atomic structure or a chemical or phys-High-tech has come to mean “computer based,” and ical force interaction. Such applications are particu-some of the highest-tech options have grown out of

larly effective when the phenomenon in question is

Web 2.0 (really just extended uses of the “old” Web).

too large, too small, or too dynamic to convey with

Our younger students simply assume the existence

printed media, static diagrams, or hand gestures.

of personal computers. According to Junco and

•

A technology may allow students to drill

Mastrodicasa’s (2007) survey of 7,705 college students and practice at their own pace. No one instructor can in the United States, 97 percent own a computer, 94

regularly give every student individual instruction,

percent own a cell phone, 76 percent use instant mes-

although we try to do so when necessary. Computer-

saging and 15 percent of these users are online 24/7, based tutorials can function in our place, without

75 percent are on Facebook, 60 percent own an iPod

the time and patience limitations that afflict us mere or its equivalent, 34 percent get their news mostly

mortals.

from the Web, 49 percent download music using

•

A technology may help students acquire

peer-to-peer file sharing, 44 percent read blogs, and the technological literacy that their future occu-28 percent have their own blogs.

pations will require. By learning to use a type

Still, the old rule holds true: instructors should

of

program—spreadsheet,

database,

information

choose a technology for sound pedagogical reasons

management, statistical analysis, form development

(Albright & Graf, 1992; Knapper, 1982), not just

layout and design, photography, sound, video, pub-

because they think their students think it’s cool.

lishing, website development, mathematical, drafting, After all, computers are only a tool—one most

engineering, and the like—students overcome their

frequently used for communication, business, and

anxieties as well as their ignorance and broaden their data management—and only one of many tools for

employment prospects. While the software will prob-

effective instruction. We can become so fascinated

ably advance in a couple of years, it is easier to master with the bells and whistles that we forget the lower-a new version after having used the previous one.

tech ways to accomplish the same objective just as

•

A technology may enhance your own and

well. Interestingly, the sound pedagogical reasons that your students’ productivity by reducing the time

faculty gave for using advanced technology in the

spent on routine record keeping and communication.

1980s (Lewis & Wall, 1988) still apply:

Grading and attendance records, for example, are

most easily managed on a spreadsheet or on the learn-

•

A technology may help achieve certain

ing management system (Blackboard, for example).

course goals and facilitate certain instructional tasks Posting announcements, assignments, handouts, and

that are impossible to accomplish otherwise. For

grades on the learning management system saves class

instance, a virtual world or learning object may allow time. Sometimes you can even word-process your

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

257

comments on written assignments and essay exams,

complaints were about the ways faculty fumbled

since students’ papers and responses often display

with and misused technology, especially presentation

similar strengths and weaknesses.

software, a topic addressed later in the chapter. An

•

A technology may afford you and your

even larger national survey found that most students

students unique conveniences. Various forms of

prefer a blend of face time with the instructor and

electronic communication facilitate collaboration

moderate use of technology (Kiernan, 2005).

with and among your students—for instance, team

Let us now take a look at some of the most

and class discussion boards, wikis, blogs, Del.icio.us, pedagogically relevant high-tech instructional tools.

Diingo, and the Track Changes tool on Microsoft

Word. Using one or more of these tools, teams of

students can collaborate, exchange files and Web re-

LEARNING MANAGEMENT

sources, and edit projects online at any time. Putting SYSTEMS

a class journal on a discussion board, wiki, or blog

encourages timely and thoughtful responses. Using

Also called “course management systems,” these are

email, you and your students can confer privately

actually packages of instructionally useful software.

with one another outside class and your office hours.

Some of their tools are designed to streamline

the instructor’s duties—such as an online syllabus

New technologies give greater latitude in devel-

template, a spell-checker, automatic test grading,

oping your courses but also demand greater care in

and a grade book linked to a spreadsheet program.

choosing and using the various technologies appro-

Other features facilitate and expand opportunities

priately. While just about everyone has used the easier for communication and interaction with and among

or more ubiquitous types of technology, some of the

students, extending the classroom beyond its walls

more advanced kinds require the newest computer

and scheduled meeting times.

hardware, which may be too expensive for many stu-

Among the best-known brands of learning

dents. Other types have substantial learning curves

management systems are

Blackboard, Moodle,

that drain precious in-class and out-of-class time from Desire2Learn, eTEA, and Sakai. (You can run

your content.

product comparisons at www.edutools.info/item list

Students have their own views on the instruc-

.jsp?pj=4.) Institutions often purchase one system or tional value of various technologies. In a Harvard

select an open-source system for its entire faculty,

University (2008) survey, those with experience in

so you probably will not have a choice. However,

using a tool not surprisingly rated its utility higher.

these are the online tools that are bundled in a good Students also said they appreciated the conveniences

product:

of online course materials—in particular, syllabi

with links to readings and resources—and recorded

•

Announcements page

lectures they can replay at any time. In addition,

•

A course site template with subtemplates for the

they liked online discussion forums, blogs to connect syllabus, course calendar, pop-up glossary, and class course material with current events, and foreign

roster

video clips on YouTube for learning languages

•

Space for posting course materials (text, graph-

(Harvard University, 2008). In a national survey

ics, multimedia), such as the syllabus, handouts,

(Young, 2004), however, students found most online

assigned readings, lecture notes, student presenta-

discussion and chat useless, especially when not mod-

tions, and directions for assignments

erated by the instructor, while course websites and

•

Space for links to library reserve materials

interactive features like preclass online testing on the

•

Drop-box for homework assignments and take-

readings registered high praise. Most of the students’

home tests

258

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Online testing (timed, untimed, and multiple-tries

consider the impact of posting materials before you

option)

do so. Of course, students love the one-stop conve-

•

Automatic grading (of closed-ended items)

nience of obtaining all the course materials whenever

•

Grade book (Excel compatible)

and wherever they want (Harvard University, 2008;

•

Automatic test feedback to students (on closed-

Young, 2004). But both you and they may pay a price.

ended items)

If you post your syllabus and assignments and

•

Student survey template

modify them during the term, many students may

•

Student Web page templates

not notice the changes, not even after alerts on the

•

Spell-checker

announcements page. It is safest to alert students to

•

Online help and search

the changes in class or on email. Posting homework

•

Email, with a mass mailing option for the

assignments, study questions, review sheets, and the

instructor

like in advance rarely presents problems, but be care-

•

Class and team discussion boards with threaded

ful not to post homework solutions and answers until

discussion options

after you grade and return the students’ work. Of

•

Live chatrooms

course, putting up test questions and answers renders

•

Blogs

those items unusable in the future.

•

Wikis

What about posting your complete lecture

The last five tools are forms of electronic com-

notes, slide presentations, and class exercises and

munication that can augment classroom learning and

activities? If you do, you will not have students

help develop students’ cognitive skills in important

who miss classes coming to you for information

ways. The fact that the type of communication is

and materials. But unless you make every class more

somewhat anonymous and not face-to-face reduces

valuable than the documents you post, your live

many students’ self-consciousness and defensiveness,

attendance and even participation are likely to drop

thereby fostering their involvement and participation.

(Young, 2004).

It can also enhance problem-solving skills and cre-

Many students claim that they benefit from

ativity (Gallupe & Cooper, 1993) and even stimu-

downloading lecture notes and presentation slides

late clearer and deeper thinking. As students have to before class so they can listen more intently and write write their questions and responses and frame their

fewer of their own notes. Some contend that reading

messages for clarity and conciseness, the medium en-

the notes and slides reinforces hearing them (Clark,

courages more careful and critical thought and clearer 2008). But these arguments have a few holes. How

writing (Bellman, 1992). But perhaps most obvious,

deeply are students processing a lecture when they

electronic interaction extends your students’ learning are just following along with prepackaged material? If beyond the classroom, increasing student-active time

they are not taking notes, they are not judging what

on task.

is more or less important, translating the material

The rest of this section elaborates on certain

into their own words, or distilling it down to an ab-

tools in learning management systems that deserve

breviated version (see Chapter Twelve). In addition,

closer examination. We explore blogs and wikis later

reading and hearing words both involve receiving

in the chapter under “Web 2.0 Tools.”

material verbally, essentially in the same modality,

so this redundancy does little to enhance learning

Space to Post Course Material

(Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & Charalampos, 2006;

For distance learning students, you have to post

Tulving, 1985; Vekiri, 2002). Not surprisingly, then, all your course materials. But if your course Web

handouts that duplicate the lecture presentation seem presence is a hybrid enhancement of a live course,

not to increase student learning or improve exam

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

259

performance (Kinchin, 2006; Noppe, Achterberg,

Patterson, Gavrin, & Christian, 1999), as long as Duquaine, Huebbe, & Williams, 2007).

the quizzes figure substantially into the final grade Therefore, post selectively. If you will lecture,

(Sullivan, Middendorf, & Camp, 2008). Students

the best document to post in advance is a skeletal

seem to know the positive effects of online quizzes

outline of your lecture. You can create it in a word

on their motivation, engagement, and learning, and

processing or a presentation program. Allow plenty

they endorse them as a wise use of instructional

of white space between major topics, and advise

technology (Young, 2004).

your students to print it out and bring it to class

for note taking. It will enable them to follow your

Class Email

organization. In fact, skeletal notes are the most

effective learning aid you can furnish to students for Email is a one-to-one or one-to-many (through

lectures. Because these aids improve note taking,

multiple receivers, cc’s, or lists) asynchronous com-

students perform better on tests, suggesting they

munication system by which a sender accesses a

learn more (Cornelius & Owen-DeSchryver, 2008;

mainframe system and leaves a message to be read by

Hartley & Davies, 1986; Potts, 1993; see Chapter

one or more receivers at remote locations. One-to-

Twelve). You should also post complex visuals so stu-

one email with your students can substitute for live

dents don’t have to draw them, as well as equations,

office hours and after-class exchanges but without

formulas, and the like that invite copying errors.

the restrictions of time and place. Your students can In brief, feel free to post in advance any materials

contact you individually and confidentially with their that are supplementary to, not redundant with, your

questions, to which you can reply individually. This

classes.

option also saves class time that would otherwise

But then again, consider the exciting possibilities

go to individual student questions, concerns, and

of making all your lectures outside reading, listening, Socratic dialogue. Using the attachment tool, students or viewing assignments (see the “Podcasts and Vod-can email you homework assignments, papers, and

casts” section below). You then liberate hours and

presentations if you don’t want to use the drop-box.

hours of valuable class time for all the discussion, de-The mailing list option also saves class time, as you bate, writing-to-learn exercises, group work, simula-can send your entire class housekeeping messages, re-

tions, games, and other student-active methods that

minders, study questions, assignments, tips on doing

you may have wanted to integrate into your course

the readings, and connections between the course

but never had the time to include.

material and current events—all in one mailing

(Bowen, 2006).

A word of warning: some students, especially

Online Preclass Quizzes

younger ones, keep very late hours and may not real-

Easily administered from a learning management

ize that you might not. They may email you with

system, regular online quizzes can serve as an

questions, especially right before tests, in the mid-

incentive for students to keep up with the readings

dle of the night, anticipating a prompt reply. Or they (see Chapter Twenty-Three) or as an inquiry-based

may expect you to be online evenings, weekends, and

diagnostic technique to assess your students’ un-

whenever else they are. In your syllabi (see Chapter

derstanding and plan class around clearing up their

Three) you should set explicit limits with your classes misconceptions (see Chapter Eighteen). The latter

about your online availability.

use is called just-in-time-teaching. Research attests If you distribute a class list of email addresses,

that this method raises students’ level of preparation your students can also communicate with one anfor class, participation, engagement, and achievement other, but you will not be able to monitor them unless (Bowen, 2006; Marrs & Novak, 2004; Novak,

they “cc” their course-relevant messages to you.

260

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Discussion Boards

Chatrooms, Conferencing Software,

Like email, this form of communication is asyn-

and MOOs

chronous; messages can be sent and retrieved at

Synchronous, real-time communication systems like

any time. In addition, they appear on a permanent

these are less popular than email and discussion boards running record. Once posted, messages cannot be

for several reasons:

deleted or modified, so you can monitor and, if you

wish, grade your students’ participation. This type of

•

They strongly privilege those who think and

communication is strictly one-to-many, but “many”

type fast.

can be a small group if you make team discussion

•

They

require

synchronized

schedules

of

boards. Since a class may be discussing a number of

participation.

topics at any given time during the course, it is best

•

They invite netiquette violations, especially chat-

to have threaded discussions where contributions are

rooms.

clearly labeled and organized by topic.

•

They encourage free-for-all bull sessions that may

If online discussion will comprise a serious,

wander off the main topic.

graded part of your course, you’ll need to develop

•

They allow pairs and triads to splinter off into pri-

some explicit standards and procedures like these:

vate side conversations.

•

Explain to your students the importance of on-

Still, if somewhat controlled, these tools can play

line discussion in their achieving the learning out-

a critical educational role. Team chatrooms can facili-comes of the course (see Chapter Two).

tate small-group collaboration, and the instructor can

•

Decide how the discussion topics or questions will

participate. In addition, with conferencing software, be generated.

you and your students can set up topical folders and

•

Establish replies

as

important contributions

share any type of computer file. MOOs (multiple-

(Knowlton, Knowlton, & Davis, 2000).

user object-oriented environments) add graphical in-

•

Explain the difference between high-quality and

terfaces to text-based chat and even allow video- and low-quality contributions, and show examples of

audio-streaming of lectures and class activities. If you both types.

intend to use these tools for discussion, consider ex-

•

Define and insist on proper netiquette.

plicitly setting up standards and procedures similar to

•

Give credit to students who answer other students’

those for discussion boards.

questions before you do (B. E. Weaver, personal

communication, November 15, 2002).

•

Even if you set a minimum rate or number of con-

LECTURE-RELATED SOFTWARE

tributions or grade on quantity, also take quality

into account when grading.

While reading this section, keep in mind that a little

•

Include peer evaluation of student contributions

lecture goes a long way. In fact, only a little lecture, in the grading.

a minilecture, serves instructional purposes effectively

•

Model appropriate participation; do not dominate

(see Chapter Twelve).

or direct too much (Knowlton et al., 2000).

•

Ask questions to encourage clarification, elabora-

tion, and correction (Knowlton et al., 2000).

Presentation Software

•

Over time shift your role from a participant to a

While not interactive, presentation software like

facilitator who may, for instance, synthesize stu-

PowerPoint can enhance the visual quality and impact

dents’ contributions around key points (Knowlton

of lectures and professional presentations. It allows et al., 2000).

you to create and project text integrated with images,

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

261

animations, Web resources, and video clips—all in

(Young, 2004). In addition, presentation software may full color—as well as sound. Even if you intend

require lower classroom lighting than do overhead

to display only text and images, this software gives

transparencies, so it can encourage some students to

you greater flexibility than overhead transparencies

fall asleep in class.

because you can highlight the text or zoom in on the

One more rule applies: restrain yourself from

section of the image you are explaining. In addition, getting wildly elaborate with color combinations,

you can save and post the presentation for students to backgrounds, clip art, slide transitions and builds,

download before the live lecture or to review later. If and attention-grabbing special effects. In instruction, you want to write or draw on your slides, which can

the fewer the glitzy distractions and the simpler the be particularly helpful when teaching mathematics,

visuals, the better. It is also advisable to keep the engineering, and the physical sciences, you should

same colors and backgrounds throughout a presenta-

project your presentation onto a Smartboard (an

tion. Nevertheless, students appreciate your mixing

interactive white board) or from a tablet PC. Using

in graphics, animations, and Web links and your

these technologies, you can save your annotations and displaying some design flair with color, pleasing com-digitally distribute the modified slides to your class.

position, and varying slide layouts. Some students

While presentation software is almost essential

depend on the slides and their movement to stimulate

for conveying knowledge at a distance, it is easy to

their attention (Clark, 2008).

overuse it in the classroom, especially for text. Such Student Presentations

software is merely a complement to lecture and just

Presentation software is for your students’ use as well.

as student-passive as lecture. So you need to interject It encourages them to incorporate multimedia vital-student-active breaks within your presentations. You

ity and richness into their class presentations and offers can sprinkle in occasional questions for reflection, dis-you and your students the freedom to view them out-

cussion (whole class or small group), or informal writ-side class. A slide presentation can be run at any time, ing. You can insert short cases or problems to give

preserved and revised indefinitely, and integrated into students practice in application. Or you can strate-a student’s e-portfolio.

gically place concept-oriented multiple-choice ques-

tions to assess students’ understanding. Fortunately, clickers are designed to interface with PowerPoint (see Podcasts and Vodcasts

Chapter Twelve).

Some faculty record the audio of their lectures as a

podcast, allowing their students to listen to them on Design Guidelines

their computers, cell phones, or MP3 players when-

Presentation software shines when used to show visu-

ever they want. A few even video-record their lec-

ally intensive or multimedia material. But when you

tures as a “vodcast” so their students can similarly view do make text slides, keep in mind the same rules that them electronically at their convenience. Both forms

apply to text in lower-tech instructional aids, like the allow playback at any time. Special pod-catching soft-overhead and the document projectors (above). Fo-

ware (for example, Camtasia and Echo 360) digitally

cus on only one concept per slide, use key words

records the presentations and publishes them on the

rather than complete sentences, and keep the infor-

Internet, then delivers them through a feed to the

mation on each slide to an absolute minimum. Use

computers or mobile devices of student subscribers.

the templates to help you arrange your information

The intention of the technology is for students

in a logical and pleasing way. Make only your major

to review lectures, not for them to skip the live

points on the slides; don’t just dump your notes on

presentation and just listen to it or watch it whenever.

them. And never read them in class. To students, these No doubt, students use podcasts and vodcasts both

are among the most egregious abuses of the software

ways. These recordings do not capture student

262

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

activities during the class very well and may not

Chapter Twenty-Five). Many arrange the material

pick them up at all, and faculty have no way of

nonlinearly and interactively, allowing students to

monitoring whether students outside the classroom

select different learning paths based on the decisions are doing the activities.

they make earlier in the presentation. Thus, students Still, this technology has rich potential. Just

can pursue the topics of greatest interest of them.

as you can post your lecture notes on your course

With more control over their learning process, they

website and make them a reading assignment, so can

should feel greater ownership of the material. In

you make your recorded lectures listening or viewing

addition, these resources are accessible to students

assignments and free class time for student questions anytime, anywhere, from any computer terminal

and activities. Campus events—such as speeches,

with a browser, and they usually contain links to

debates, radio shows, interviews, ceremonies, and

more online sources of relevant information.

performances—can also be recorded and syndicated

the same way, permitting you to assign such events

Teaching and Learning Tools

whenever they occur, without concern about your

Among the Web’s resources are an amazing array of

students’ or your own scheduling conflicts.

free digital teaching and learning tools. Many of these fall under the general category of learning objects,

which are self-contained, self-paced, reusable, digital WEB RESOURCES

lessons on specific topics; the best of them are ani-

mated and interactive. Others of those listed here are A good reason to have a course website is to incor-simply learning resources:

porate links to other relevant sites. The Web contains a wealth of free resources that you may want your

•

Realistic demonstrations, animated or on video

students to read, view, hear, critique, analyze, play, (for example, cellular processes at www.cellsalive

or respond to as an assignment or for course-related

.com for biology, bioengineering, and the health

research. Because this electronic space is so vast, your professions)

campus library or instructional technology center

•

Performances (musical, dramatic, dance, sport)

may offer Web-search workshops that can save you

•

Virtual science laboratories for hazardous or costly

hours, even days, of roaming around on a browser.

procedures and experiments (for example, the

Good browser search engines can also direct you

Chemistry Collective at www.chemcollective.org;

to worthy sites. Perhaps most valuable are your

see Chapter Twenty-Two for more)

colleagues’ referrals to resources in specialized areas.

•

Case studies

You can post your request for recommended sites

•

Simulations (for example, in business, manage-

on one of your discipline’s teaching-focused listservs.

ment, sociology, urban planning, political science,

Also see the discipline-specific sites listed on the

environmental studies, biology)

Web page of Clemson University’s Office of Teach-

•

Setups for experiments student can run on each

ing Effectiveness and Innovation at www.clemson

other (for example, the Senses Challenge on per-

.edu/OTEI/resources/instructional.html.

ception at www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody

Many of the educational computer programs

/body/interactives/senseschallenge)

and multimedia presentations that were once sold

•

Drills and exercises for remediation, practice, or

on CD-ROMs have moved to the Web. (But don’t

review (for example, mathematics, reading, for-

forget to mine the CD-ROM that comes with your

eign languages)

textbook.) They usually feature imaginative, high-

•

Teacher resources for K–12 and special education

quality graphics—some with sound, animation, or

(presentations, exercises, and other activities)

video—creating a multisensory learning experience

•

“Tests” of greater or lesser validity on learning

that speaks to all learning styles (Lamb, 1992; also see styles, temperament and personality, aptitudes,

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

263

career preferences, political ideology, leadership

•

Notre Dame’s OpenCourseWare at http://ocw.nd

style, and other human dimensions—many free

.edu: lecture transcripts, syllabi, and other instruc-

•

Research-worthy multimedia materials

tional materials in history and the social sciences

•

Smithsonian Institution at www.si.edu: virtual

Collections for Multimedia Research

access to the world’s largest museum (actually

nineteen museums), nine research centers, and

Let’s look first at the research-worthy multimedia

the National Zoo

sites. Here are some extensive, cross-disciplinary

•

World Lecture Hall at http://wlh.webhost.utexas

collections that you can safely send your students to,

.edu: access to courses and their materials from

and all of them have existed for many years:

around the world in all disciplines

•

Calisphere at www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia

.edu: a huge collection of websites, scholarly ma-

Learning Objects

terials, images, electronic books, data, and

statistics

Depending on the specific object, learning ob-

•

Open Learning Initiative at www.cmu.edu/oli

jects can serve multiple purposes. They can make

/index.shtml: access to publicly available online

eye-catching demonstrations to spark up your pre-

courses and course materials in a wide range of

sentations, whole-class activities, or teacher education academic fields

resources. They can also make appealing student

•

CSERDA Metadata Catalog at www.shodor.org

assignments as well as in-class activities in a computer

/refdesk/Catalog: a searchable repository of Web-

lab or a laptop classroom (see the next section). Since based teaching materials for mathematics, com-they provide lessons, students can learn on their

puter science, and the sciences

own and at their own pace by playing or running

•

Internet Archive at www.archive.org/index.php:

them any number of times. Both faculty and students

a collection of Internet sites and digitized cul-

perceive learning objects to be powerful teaching

tural artifacts (images, audio files, animations); also and learning tools (Fontana, 1991; Howard-Rose

courses, study guides, assignments, and recorded

& Harrigan, 2003; Ip, Morrison, & Currie, 2001; lectures under Education

Moore, 2003–2004), and one study supports that

•

MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource

they are, especially for the students who need the

for Learning and Online Teaching) at www

most help (Biktimirov & Nilson, 2007).

.merlot.org: thousands of annotated links to free

Learning objects are housed in open learning

learning materials, most peer reviewed, including

object repositories, many of which are searchable by

entire courses, databases, presentations, and

discipline. In some cases, you must join a community.

collections

One of the repositories listed below even provides an-

•

National Science Foundation Internet Library at

notated links to additional repositories:

http://nsdl.org/index.php: rich and technologi-

cally sophisticated instructional materials for the

•

MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource

sciences, mathematics, public health, economics,

for Learning and Online Teaching) at www

and other fields

.merlot.org: thousands of interactive case studies,

•

Online Books Page at www.digital.library.upenn

simulations, games, and animations for almost

.edu/books: access to over thirty-five thousand

every discipline

free books on the Web

•

Brock University at www.brocku.ca/learning

•

New York Public Library Digital Collections at

objects/flash content: twenty high-quality simu-

www.nypl.org/digital: a vast collection of cultur-

lations, games, animations, and exercises for

ally significant images, audio files, videos, books,

English, finance, German, management, mathe-

and literary works.

matics, and psychology

264

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Wisconsin Online Resource Center at www

mandates were quickly aborted or went on to yield

.wisc-online.com: over twenty-three hundred

poor to mixed results (Bugeja, 2007; Foster, 2008b;

animations, games, and interactive exercises for

“Georgia System Ends Laptop Program with Debt

many content areas as well as for cognitive,

and Claims of Success,” 2001; Mangan, 2001; Olsen,

communication, and social skills

2001, 2002). Eventually the faculty got fed up with

•

Shodor Interactivate at www.shodor.org/inter

too many students wandering off to renegade sites to

activate: interactive lessons and exercises for the

do noncourse-related things during classes.

sciences and especially mathematics

•

University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Center for

International Education at www4.uwm.edu/cie

Using Laptops in Class Productively

/learning objects.cfm?gid=55: learning objects

The few successful pioneers in laptop pedagogy have

for global studies and a few more for the social

important lessons to share. Lesson 1 is that faculty

sciences, plus an annotated listing of dozens of

need training in how to make good pedagogical class-

learning object repositories across the disciplines

room use of laptops and how to manage student use

of them. Just letting students use them to take notes invites abuse. (Registered disabled students or their

‘‘Link Rot’’

note takers are excepted.) Instructors have to seek out One reason to add links to your course Web page

or develop useful activities for students to do during is to avoid violating copyright laws and guidelines

class, and as we saw in the previous section, the Web (see Chapter Six). But in relying on links for re-holds some amazing learning experiences. In addi-

quired readings and activities, you encounter another tion, students may benefit by doing some course work

problem, one particularly serious for distance learn-

during class because you are nearby to lend help and

ing courses: “link rot.” The links may or may not be

they can most easily collaborate. Weaver and Nilson

there the next time you teach the course, or even later (2005) suggest these fruitful uses of laptops in class: in the term when your students get to them. In three

graduate-level biochemistry courses at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, half of the links disappeared

•

Students work on online simulations, virtual

in less than five years (Kiernan, 2002). The only way laboratories, case studies, exercises, or problems,

around link rot is to make online copies of the Web

whether instructor developed, in an instructional

materials and make course links to the copies rather

software package, or on the Web (see “Web

than the originals. But doing this legally requires the Resources” above).

written permission of the creators of the materials and

•

Students work on individual or team projects

may entail a fee (Kiernan, 2002; see Chapter Six).

online (for example, websites, presentations, or

e-portfolios).

•

Students analyze a digitized performance.

LAPTOPS IN THE WIRELESS

•

Students complete one or more self-assessment in-

CLASSROOM

struments (listed in the “Web Resources” section

above).

During the past decade or so, several universities, law

•

You facilitate a workshop on writing, research

schools, and business schools mandated that all their methods, Web page evaluation, Web page devel-students have laptop computers and bring them to

opment, problem solving, or some other skill,

class, but very few of these institutions set up training during which students try out the recommended

programs and incentives for faculty to teach student-

procedures and get quick feedback from you and

actively with laptops. Not surprisingly, most of the

one another.

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

265

•

Students conduct Web-based research on a spe-

the activities listed above that can capture a student’s cific topic, then present and pool their findings.

monitor for projection. You can find many more in-

Documentary, experimental, survey analysis, and

novative and productive ideas for using laptops in class even field research are possible.

in a wide range of disciplines in Nilson and Weaver

•

Using a class discussion board, blog, or wiki, stu-

(2005). Every idea was assessed and found to improve

dents discuss a complex question or issue that you

student learning, engagement, or motivation.

have posted. Students then have a record of the

Laptop technology is advancing every year.

discussion.

Products are getting lighter, faster, and more reliable,

•

Students exchange their drafts of assignments to

and their battery life is increasing. Furthermore, tablet give and receive peer feedback.

PCs have extended their utility. As their pedagogical

•

While students are watching an in-class demon-

use is in its infancy, laptops and tablet PCs invite

stration, a live performance, a video, or a student

more creative experimentation.

presentation, they record and post their obser-

vations, questions, and evaluative feedback. The

Keeping Students on Task

learning management system’s survey tool can be

used to make these posts anonymous if preferred.

Generally students feel comfortable learning with lap-

•

You or a student conducts a class survey of opin-

tops, but many prefer doing other things with their

ions, attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or reactions.

laptops in class: surfing the Web, shopping, game

The survey may also be a classroom assessment

playing, doing email, talking in chatrooms, trading

activity (see Chapter Twenty-Eight), such as an

stocks online, instant messaging with a friend,

anonymous ungraded quiz, or it may provide you

blogging, twittering, or even viewing pornography.

with midterm feedback on the course.

No matter what students may believe, research doc-

•

Students take timed online quizzes, assuming

uments that multitasking is mostly wishful thinking

you implement ways to discourage cheating—for

(Crenshaw, 2008; Loukopoulos, Dismukes, & Barshi, example, making the quizzes low stakes and

2009). No one can concentrate on two activities,

proctoring judiciously. Students can get nearly

neither of which is semiautomatic like driving, at the instantaneous feedback on online objective tests.

same time.

•

Students can take in-class essay tests with minimal

Because part of our job is to attract and maintain

cheating if they can’t read each other’s monitors.

our students’ attention, we need to remove all the

•

You hold class outside the classroom—at field

classroom distractions and occasions for incivility that research or observation sites, in the library, in a

we can. Here is a list of ways to discourage laptop

gallery or museum, or even in a local coffee shop

abuse (Weaver & Nilson, 2005):

for the atmosphere.

•

Institute strict course policies for laptop use and

How essential are laptops to the classroom activ-

put them in your syllabus—for instance: “Students

ities listed above? Certainly laptops enable computer-should keep their laptops closed unless they are

driven activities without holding class in a computer doing an online task that I have assigned. Any-lab, which usually doesn’t allow the instructor and

one caught at a renegade site during class will be

the students to see each other. It is true that some of marked absent for the day.”

these activities are quite possible with only low-tech

•

Tell students that laptop abuse is discourteous and

tools. However, laptops enhance the speed and effi-

distracting to their classmates, not to mention dis-

ciency of these tasks while saving reams of paper and courteous to you.

preparing students for an increasingly laptop-oriented

•

Tell them that research shows—and it does—that

work world. They also allow you to extend some of

laptop abuse lowers grades (Fischman, 2009)—just

266

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

one more piece of evidence that multitasking

Blogs

is a myth.

Also called a “weblog,” it is a frequently updated

•

Tell them when to open and close their laptops.

personal website where the “owner” shares opinions,

•

Whenever possible, have students work on their

passions, happenings, links, and the like, similar to laptop assignments in groups of three. No one

a journal or a diary. Posts are very easy to make,

wants to watch someone else shop, play, chat,

and only the blog owner can change them. While

email, and the like, and three students will seldom

a stripped-down site is free, it lacks the features that be able to agree on a renegade Internet site.

some bloggers may want, such as the abilities to design

•

Set specific objectives for students to accomplish

the site, invite commentators, and post images, au-

in their in-class laptop assignments and hold them

dio files, and videos. The host (for example, Blogger, accountable—for example, randomly ask individ-Livelogcity, Livejournal, Squarespace, and WordPress) uals or teams to report their progress to the entire

will also use a free site to display advertising.

class.

Of course, most learning management systems

•

Set tight time limits for these assignments.

have built-in blogs for your class as a group and each

•

Walk around the room and stand in the back to

student in it, and these typically have all the features watch the students’ monitors during these assignments.

that you and your students are likely to need. Since

•

Have students bring their laptops to class only on

they are quasi-public (open to the class and specific certain days, and tell them explicitly not to bring

individuals granted permission), many students do

them the other days.

some of their most conscientious writing on blogs

and enjoy adding multimedia to their posts. Individ-

ual blogs are particularly well suited to journaling.

Experimenting with Mobile Devices

You can also use the class blog like a discussion

A few universities are making classroom use of cell

board and require that students make a specified

phones and BlackBerries, which now have many of

number of posts on whatever topics. However, blogs

the capabilities of laptops but are much smaller and

do not offer topical threading. Blogs can also be a

lighter. However, they cannot accommodate certain

source of up-to-date reading material. You and your

kinds of software and are not designed for substan-

students can sign up to receive updates of the blogs of tial, in-depth writing. Most important, an instructor political and cultural leaders, corporations, nonprofit cannot even see them, let alone monitor and control

organizations, action groups, and social forums.

student use, except in a small class. This is why many (They usually offer syndication, which means they

faculty require students to turn off and put away these use RSS feed to inform subscribers by email.) If you

devices during class. Be aware of these pitfalls if you are going to use blogs, however, you must integrate

want to experiment with them in the classroom.

them into other aspects of the course.

Of course, students need an incentive to post

regularly to a class-related blog, just as they do to WEB 2.0 TOOLS

post to a discussion board. Although you need to

check that students have made a post, you need not

Web 2.0 is simply an extension of the “old” World

grade every contribution. You can, for example, have

Wide Web equipped with new software that facilitates

students write a self-assessment of their posts around communication, commentary, file exchange, and

midterm, comparing theirs to the best ones they have

collaboration. Some tools require add-ons (free

read in the class. This exercise tends to improve the downloads for the basic utility) to user computers

quality of posts in the second half of the course. Then and mobile devices.

at the end of the term, you can ask students to select

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

267

and submit their best three posts for a grade (Lang,

allocate wikis across individual students and teams

2008).

and to the entire class. You can also allocate read-only Higdon and Topaz (2009) adapted blogging to

and edit rights to each one, allowing students to read just-in-time-teaching. They have their students post

but not to modify each other’s wikis (Konieczny,

to their individual blog their answers to two questions 2007). With edit rights to every class wiki, you can

on the readings—the first about the most difficult

also provide students with formative feedback as their part of the material and the second about the most

product develops (Madigan, 2006). Multiple-page

interesting part, the material’s connection to prior

wikis are organized by content. While wikis are user

knowledge, or its relevance to their intellectual or

friendly and intuitive, you can find video tutorials

career interests. (The first question resembles a stan-at

sites

such

as

www.youtube.com/watch?v=-

dard classroom assessment technique that we cover

dnL00TdmLY&feature=related, as many students

in the next chapter.) Students submit their responses will need an orientation. In fact, you might create a the night before class and email the link to the blog’s class wiki with wiki instructions and ask students to RSS feed to the instructor, who (for convenience)

add tips (Allwardt, 2009).

aggregates the posts onto a wiki (see below). The

Scott Moore, professor of business at the Uni-

instructor scans and grades the responses, looking

versity of Michigan, has made extensive course use

for common difficulties and themes, then adapts the

of classwide wikis for class notes and test questions upcoming class to clear the bottlenecks. According to (Moore, 2009). For each class, he assigns one student Higdon and Topaz, just-in-time blogging enhances

the task of taking notes on the class wiki, allowing

their students’ conceptual understanding, their time

other members of the class to make corrections and

on task out of class, their metacognitive reflection on additions. He also invites students to make up and

the material, and their ability to transfer knowledge post objective test items (with answers), which others to real-world applications.

can then improve or elaborate. Students can check

and study from the items any time they want, and

Wikis

Moore uses about half of them for actual tests.

While students are motivated to visit Moore’s

A wiki is an ever-evolving, collaboratively developed class wiki, they may not find some wikis so obviously website that allows users to add, remove, edit, revise, useful. Some students back away from discussing dif-update, and make comments to the content, usu-

ficult topics or critiquing the work of their peers, so ally including text, images, video, audio files, video, you may have to require and monitor regular partici-and links. Its capabilities make it ideal for collabopation, specify appropriate dimensions for critiquing, rative writing assignments, research, portfolios, and and promote and reward serious discussion and con-other projects, and the format encourages sharing, restructive criticism (Allwardt, 2009). Like every other flection, and continual assessment (Madigan, 2006).

student discussion tool, you have to be involved with All the versions of and changes to the document are

it to make it a success.

recorded and attributed, so all users (including the instructor) can easily find out who made what change

when and, if expected in the comments, why. Thus,

Social Bookmarking Tools

wikis build in accountability.

Social bookmarking tools help users to accumulate

Wiki space—free or paid, public or private—is

and organize websites by topic. Therefore, it can

available from many dozens of hosts, called “wiki

facilitate collaborative research that depends on a

farms,” listed at http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiFarms,

large number of Web-based sources—in other words,

but most learning management systems also offer

when you or your students outgrow your long lists of

it, restricted to students and invited guests. You can browser favorites. The simplest social bookmarking

268

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

tool is Del.icio.us, which allows users to categorize, software options are OpenSocial (also called Ning,

annotate, save, manage, and share sites from a

which is the name of the company that created it),

centralized collection. It is an add-on you download

OpenID, OAuth, Microformats, and Jobber. Video

onto your browser. You can import your “favorites”

tutorials on OpenSource abound, but you might

into your Del.icio.us collection, and your collection start with the one at www.youtube.com/watch?v=

is available from any computer with Web access. For

lVIYhdaavsw. A tutorial on several programs is at

the software and text instructions on how to use

www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SYnlH5FXz0&feature

it, go to http://delicious.com/help. Instructional

=channel.

videos are available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=

Twitter is a microblogging and social network

PIkMS-Co8Vc&feature = related and www.youtube

utility designed to send and receive very short

.com/watch?v=meyiH9E60hY&feature=related%20

messages (140 characters long) called “tweets.” It is percent20Diigo.

too simple to require instructions; all you need do

Diigo does what Del.icio.us does and more.

is sign up for a free account at http://twitter.com.

Users can highlight material on bookmarked web-

The video tutorial at www.youtube.com/watch?v=

sites, add “sticky notes,” and create groups to pool

ddO9idmax0o explains the typical way people use

resources on specific topics. In addition, they can

it: to update what they are doing for the purpose of

easily post their findings to their blog (even set up staying in touch with others. While its instructional automatic daily posting), send multiple annotated and value is debatable, it does enable you to connect

highlighted pages in one email, and post to social net-with your students with bite-size text messages. So

working sites such as Twitter and Facebook. The free

you can use it to make quick announcements (“No

browser add-on is available at http://help.diigo.com

class today due to snow”) and to remind students of

and video instructions at http://help.diigo.com

upcoming tests and assignments, reaching those who

/home/get-started. YouTube also offers video tuto-

rely almost exclusively on text messaging. You can

rials at www.youtube.com/watch?v=meyiH9E60hY

also incorporate links into your messages, enabling

&feature=related (also includes Del.icio.us), www you to publicize a current event or new development

.youtube.com/watch?v=0RvAkTuL02A, and www

relevant to your course.

.youtube.com/watch?v=kcecBgRd3ig&eurl=http://

Because Twitter allows discussion to run parallel

blog.diigo.com.

to the lecture, a few faculty have experimented with

it as a “back channel” during class. Proponents claim Social Networking Tools

it engages students and reduces the social distance be-This kind of tool allows you to set up your own

tween them and the instructor. In addition, students

social network, which could comprise the students

who wouldn’t speak up in a large class can tweet their in one of your courses or a broader special interest

questions, which a teaching assistant can answer im-

group. Over 113,000 of these networks exist (as of

mediately or the instructor can do so after class. How-spring 2009). For educational purposes, a network

ever, students can’t pay attention in class while they can define a learning community. Like a face-to-face

are texting, and often the Twitter exchanges roam far community, its value depends on the meaningful

off class topics (Young, 2009; Zax, 2009). No doubt

participation of all users, which can be hard to

some students text to nonclass sites.

motivate among students without the instructor’s

monitoring and intervening. But compared to some

Virtual Worlds

other social platforms, networks offer some of the

features in Facebook and MySpace that personalize

Because virtual worlds imitate three-dimensional re-

the virtual interaction, so they overcome some of the ality, they offer unique opportunities for experiential social roadblocks of online learning. Among your

learning. The most heavily populated virtual world

Using Instructional Technology Wisely

269

at the moment is Second Life. If your computer

LOOKING AHEAD

has enough bandwidth to accommodate it, you

can join and explore this world by downloading

It is almost impossible to forecast the future of

the software, registering, and taking an avatar at

instructionally relevant technology. Every few years

http://secondlife.com. A basic membership is free.

bring new waves of recording and Internet-based

You can learn all the technical how-to’s in short

innovations, and this chapter skimmed only the

videos accessible at http://secondlife.com/showcase

most popular ones up through 2009. Here are some

/tutorials, but bear in mind that depending on your

safe predictions, however: in one form or another,

objectives for use, the learning curve can be steep.

the ubiquitous board will stay with us indefinitely.

Find out first whether your institution has its own

So will electronically delivered and enhanced in-

island. If so, you can “landmark” it as “home” and

struction. But (ironically) the higher-tech tools and use its space for meeting with others.

software will likely be obsolete in a few years, having As with the Web, it is impossible to keep up

been superseded by another version, product, or

with all the new developments and activities in

utility that accomplishes the same purposes in some

Second Life, but these are among its applications in

better way.

higher education:

The younger generation may drive the changes.

After all, it didn’t take long for texting and twittering

•

As a virtual classroom for synchronous meetings

to replace instant messaging on the cutting edge of

in distance learning and hybrid courses. In strictly

routine communication. Younger instructors and

online courses, synchronous meetings can be dif-

early adopters will take to the changes naturally,

ficult to arrange.

comfortably, and quickly, but many older faculty, not

•

As a place for virtual office hours, consultations,

being digital natives, will experience future shock.

team meetings, and the like.

If they feel pressured to adopt newfangled technolo-

•

As a social laboratory in which students can ob-

gies, they should review the “sound pedagogical

serve human behavior and conduct small-scale ex-

reasons” for doing so given early in this chapter. If periments on economic, social, and psychological

the new technology meets one or more of those

phenomena (Conklin, 2007).

standards, they should consider embracing it. They

•

As a forum for practicing written and oral

should also feel free to ask others for help and train-communication in a foreign language with native

ing. After all, instructional technology is a complex, speakers.

specialized field in which expertise and proficiency

•

As a role-playing forum for practicing social and

require a graduate degree, plus a commitment to

interpersonal skills (Walker, 2009)

lifelong learning. Few people can pick it up and stay

•

For simulations and re-creations, such as busi-

current on their own. You can (try to) keep abreast

nesses, scientific phenomena (such as the cell,

of the latest high-tech improvements and innovations

basic genetics, and planets), art galleries, historical by following publications like Syllabus, E-Learning, scenes, geographic sites, theatre performances,

EDUCAUSE Review, IEEE Computer Graphics

and experiments (Conklin, 2007).

and Applications, Innovations, the Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, the International Journal of Mobile For ideas on how to teach in or with Second

Learning, the International Journal of E-Learning, the Life, go to the free online Journal of Virtual Worlds Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, Research at http://jvwresearch.org and “101 Uses the Journal of Interactive Learning Research, and the for Second Life in the College Classroom” by M. S.

International Journal of Instructional Technology and Conklin at www.dokimos.org/secondlife/education.

Distance Learning.

P A R T 6

ASSESSING LEARNING

OUTCOMES

C H A P T E R 28

Assessing Student Learning in Progress

No doubt you can recall classes when you CLASSROOMASSESSMENT

would have liked to have known what your

TECHNIQUES

students were learning from your lesson and

whether you should proceed with the next one. Per-

Classroom assessment techniques (CATs) were

haps you found out what they missed from a test you

developed precisely to serve these purposes (Angelo,

gave three weeks later. Obviously it is much more

1991a; Cross & Angelo, 1988). You can use them

cost-effective to assess your students’ learning while regularly or intermittently without violating the

in progress, before their shortfalls in understanding structure and content of your course and quickly

adversely affect their grades and motivation. Such

identify trouble spots your class is encountering.

information can also help you evaluate, and ultimately Knowing what your students did not absorb the first

enhance, your teaching effectiveness. It can even

time through the material, you can turn around a

direct your students to the areas on which they need

potentially disappointing situation. Perhaps classroom to focus their studying. We call this useful feedback assessment is not all that much different from the

to both you and your students formative assessment, as informal, sometimes unconscious gauges you already

it helps to shape and focus your subsequent teaching

use, such as reading your students’ expressions and

and their subsequent learning. Its goal is always to

body language and asking and answering questions.

help students learn better (Prégent, 1994).

But these are unreliable and rarely encompass the

273

274

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

whole class. CATs formalize and systematize the

needs, as well as to your discipline, materials, time process, ensuring that you assess all your students.

constraints, and educational priorities.

Given their purpose, they are especially appropriate

•

Ongoing. Ideally CATs provide a continual educa-for student-active lecture breaks, but they make

tional feedback loop, informing you about your

stimulating warm-up activities at the beginning of

students’ learning, to which you in turn adjust

class and good wrap-up exercises at the end of class.

your teaching, back and forth, until the end of

All good CATs share these features (Angelo &

the term.

Cross, 1993):

•

Rooted in good teaching practice. Classroom assessment builds on current teaching practices, making

them more systematic, effective, and flexible. For

•

Learner centered. While it is no substitute for appro-example, by using a simple diagnostic pretest, you

priate teaching methods or graded examinations,

can find out how well prepared your students are

classroom assessment aims to help students learn

to tackle your learning outcomes. You can then

better. It can help them improve their study habits

pitch your presentations to their actual level, cov-

and their listening skills and push them to correct

ering more or less material than you might have

their mental model of the discipline

otherwise.

•

Teacher directed. You have total freedom to decide what will be assessed, how it will be assessed,

Angelo and Cross (1993) suggest a three-step

how the results will be analyzed, and how they

plan for successfully launching classroom assessment.

will affect further actions. Be sure, then, that your First, start small. Select one class in which you are CATs address factors that you are willing and able

confident things are going well and do a simple,

to change or improve.

short, low-effort CAT—for example, the one-minute

•

Mutually beneficial. As students actively participate paper, the one-sentence summary, directed para-in the process of classroom assessment, CATs

phrasing, or the muddiest point. Second, give detailed reinforce their learning of material. Like the

directions and a rationale. Tell students what you are student-active lecture breaks described in Chapter

doing and why. They will need explicit instruc-

Twelve and the writing-to-learn exercises covered

tions and the assurance that their responses will be

in Chapter Seventeen, good CATs make your

anonymous and used solely for mutual improvement.

students review, retrieve, apply, analyze, synthe-

Allocate a few extra minutes the first time through

size, or evaluate the material in your lectures,

any CAT. Finally, respond to the information you gather.

classroom activities, and reading assignments as

After you have reflected on your students’ responses, well as their prior learning experiences. Further-take some time to share them with your class. If

more, because classroom assessment underscores

you decide to modify your teaching as a result, tell

your interest in your students’ progress, it can also your students what you will do differently and why.

boost student motivation. In turn, you benefit

Equally important, give them pointers on how they

from the feedback on the effectiveness of your

can improve their learning.

teaching methods and moves.

•

Formative. Unlike summative evaluations such as graded quizzes, tests, and assignments, CATs are

Selecting Appropriate CATs

usually anonymous, ungraded, and geared strictly

Different CATs are designed to measure students’

toward student learning.

progress in different types of learning. So before

•

Context specific. CATs work differently in differ-selecting a CAT, consider which type you wish

ent classes. Since you know your classes best, you

to assess (Angelo, 1991b). Declarative

learning is

can tailor CATs to their specific personality and

“learning what”—that is, learning the facts and

Assessing Student Learning in Progress

275

principles of a given field. In terms of Bloom’s (1956) subject matter, and, if you use open-ended questions, taxonomy of cognitive operations (see Chapters

their writing skills. The results also tell you what

Two and Fourteen), declarative learning focuses on

material to cover and what existing knowledge you

knowledge and comprehension at the lower-level

can use to map on new knowledge. Finally, probes

end of the scale. Procedural learning is learning how activate students’ prior knowledge, readying them for to do something, from the specific tasks of a given

additional learning.

discipline to universal skills such as writing, critical thinking, and reasoning. Its emphasis is application.

Focused Listing: Low Instructor

The third type, conditional

learning, is learning

and Student Effort

when and where to apply the acquired declarative

You can use this technique to activate students’ prior knowledge and procedural skills. Too often taught

knowledge before you teach a topic and to help them

only implicitly through example and modeling,

review afterward. Direct students’ attention to a sin-it can be better taught explicitly using the case

gle important name, concept, or relationship, and ask method, problem-based learning, role playing, sim-them to list as many related concepts and ideas as they ulations, and service-learning (see Chapters Fifteen, can. You might limit the exercise to two to three min-Nineteen, and Twenty). While conditional learning

utes or five to ten items. With these constraints, the clearly entails application, it also involves analysis and results give you a pretty accurate picture of the fea-synthesis. Finally, reflective learning is learning why, tures students identify and recall as salient and not just which engages students in analysis, synthesis, and

those they think you want to hear.

evaluation. It directs their attention to their beliefs, values, and motives for learning about a particular

Memory Matrix: Moderate Instructor Effort

topic. Without this reflection, higher education is

and Low Student Effort

little more than job training.

Memory matrices stress recall of course material, but they also require students to organize it in a graphic framework you provide. Start by drawing a matrix

Some Tried and True CATs

with content-appropriate row and category headings.

Chapter Seventeen introduced several popular CATs

Leave sufficient space for several one-word or phrase that also serve as writing-to-learn exercises: the one-responses in each cell. Distribute copies for your stu-minute paper, the one-sentence summary, directed

dents to fill in, with a limit on the number of items paraphrasing, dialectical notes, and learning logs. An-they can write in each cell. This limit keeps students gelo and Cross (1993; also Cross & Angelo, 1988)

from stalling in search of the one best answer. Col-

describe dozens of other techniques, among which

lect and examine the matrices for completeness and

are the following.

correctness.

Memory matrices show you how your students

Background Knowledge Probe: Moderate

organize knowledge and whether they properly as-

Instructor Effort and Low Student Effort

sociate principles and concepts. In addition, matrices This is essentially a diagnostic pretest to administer on help visual learners excel, facilitate students’ retrieval of the first day of class or when you begin a new unit of large amounts of information, and are easy to evaluate.

instruction. It can consist of two or three short answer or essay questions or fifteen to twenty multiple-choice Muddiest Point: Low Instructor

items about students’ attitudes and understanding.

and Student Effort

This CAT provides information not only on

Very simply, ask your students to write down what

your students’ prior knowledge but also on their

they perceived as the muddiest point in a lecture,

motivation, beliefs, values, misconceptions about the an assigned reading, a video, a demonstration, a

276

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

discussion, and so on. Reserve some time at the end

guidelines you provide for the final product. First,

of class to ask and answer questions; then collect the students need to understand these guidelines—that

student responses. You can clarify the muddy points

is, the important facets and likely pitfalls of the

during the next class.

assignment. For the prospectus itself, you might

Perhaps the easiest CAT to implement, you can

compose a list of three to seven questions that

use it on the spur of the moment. Struggling students students must answer. Of course, advise students not

who are not comfortable asking questions publicly

to begin substantive work on their actual assignment

find it to be a lifeline. In addition, it enables you to see until they receive feedback on their prospectus from

the material through your students’ eyes, reminding

you and possibly other students. This CAT is a major

you of the many different ways they process and store assignment in itself, so you may want to make it

information. Finally, knowing that they will have to

required and grade it, but without counting it heavily identify a muddy point induces students to pay closer toward the final grade.

attention in class. And when the time comes for the

The prospectus accommodates many different

CAT, they have to review whatever learning experi-

types of assignments and teaches crucial, transferable ence they are reflecting on.

planning and organizational skills. In addition, it gives students early enough feedback to help them produce

Concept Maps: Medium to High Instructor

a better product.

and Student Effort

Everyday Ethical Dilemmas: Moderate

Covered in detail in Chapter Twenty-Six, concept

to High Instructor and Student Effort

maps are diagrams that spatially show the mental

For this CAT, you begin by locating or creating a brief connections (labeled lines) that students make among

case study that poses an ethical problem related to the various concepts (written in circles). They help visual material (see Chapter Nineteen). Then write two or

learners get their minds around abstract relationships three questions that force students to take and defend and give you a graphic view of your students’ orga-a position. Let your students turn in their written

nization of the knowledge. For instance, you might

responses anonymously, thus giving you an honest

ask your students to concept-map the process of

overview of the prevailing class opinions and values.

photosynthesis, the structure of the U.S. government, Students will need some time to reflect and develop

or the dynamics of racism.

their arguments, so you might assign this CAT as

If your students are not accustomed to draw-

homework.

ing maps, diagrams, and flowcharts, work through an

This CAT encourages students to try on dif-

example or two with the class. Start by writing a focal ferent values and beliefs, thus helping them develop

concept on the board, then ask your students to brain-moral reasoning skills. It also affords you probing,

storm related concepts and terms, beginning with

personal glimpses into your students’ ethical and

primary (closest) associations, then secondary and ter-cognitive maturity. With these insights, you can foster tiary ones.

their continuing growth by introducing values and

opinions that they have not yet considered.

Paper or Project Prospectus: Moderate

to High Instructor and Student Effort

Self-Confidence Surveys: Low to Medium

A prospectus is a detailed plan for a project or

Instructor and Student Effort

paper—perhaps even a rough draft—that focuses

As the name implies, this CAT consists of a few

students on the topic, the purpose, the issues to

simple questions about your students’ confidence in

address, the audience, the organization, and the time, their ability to perform course-related tasks. Design skills, and other resources needed—in fact, whatever

a brief, anonymous survey focusing on specific skills

Assessing Student Learning in Progress

277

and tasks. Find the low-confidence areas in the

they identified with either other important points or results, and give additional instruction and practice your learning outcomes for them. Finally, have them

accordingly. Self-confidence surveys help you identify write an evaluative comment about the course, the

your students’ areas of anxiety and establish the mini-class period, or the material (for example, “What I

mal levels of self-confidence necessary for success in enjoyed most/least . . . ”; “What I found most/least the course.

useful . . . ”). Each of the five activities requires at least two minutes. If you can spare the time, let

Punctuated Lectures: Low Instructor

students compare their responses among themselves.

and Student Effort

Of course, feel free to pick and choose the activities After your students listen to your lecture or demon-you find most useful.

stration, stop for a moment and ask them to reflect on RSQC2 gives you timely feedback on what

what they were doing during your presentation and

your students consider important material and

how it helped or hindered their understanding. Have

what they value about your course. By having them

them anonymously write out and turn in their reflec-

recall the previous class and make connections,

tions. After reading their responses, offer suggestions this CAT also builds bridges between old and new

on how they can improve their listening and self-

material.

monitoring skills. Through your feedback, this CAT

helps students hone these skills, both of which are

highly transferable. It also better acquaints you with FORMATIVE FEEDBACK

your students’ processing styles and pitfalls.

Formative feedback is the sum of recommendations

Application Cards: Low Instructor

we give students for improving their work at an early and Student Effort

stage, with the expectation that they will revise it ac-After a lecture segment, demonstration, or video

cordingly. When you comment on drafts of papers or

on procedure, principle, or theory, have students

projects or you have your students comment on each

write down on a card or piece of paper one or more

other’s drafts, you are providing formative feedback. If real-world applications of the material. As you read

you attach a grade to such drafts, it should be mainly through them, select the best ones from a wide range

to motivate student effort during the work’s devel-

of examples to read to the class at the next meeting.

opment and should count only for a portion of the

This CAT gives students practice in transferring

work’s final grade.

knowledge to useful applications.

This type of feedback benefits both you

and your students in several ways. For them, it

RSQC2 (Recall, Summarize, Question,

encourages steady writing and work habits, it gives

Connect, and Comment): Low to Medium

them criteria on which to improve their work and

Instructor and Student Effort

their communication skills, and it teaches them the

This technique assesses your students’ recall, compreprofessional creation process, which always involves

hension, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of recent extensive revision. For you, it yields much better

material. Begin by having students list the most im-

student products, practically eliminates plagiarism,

portant points they can remember from the previous

and changes your role from judge to facilitator.

class (or the assigned reading). Second, ask them to

These suggestions will make formative assess-

define as many terms as they can in one-sentence

ments of papers and projects more productive:

summaries. Third, have them write one or two

questions about each point that still confuses them.

•

Strictly enforce deadlines for students to find

Fourth, ask them to connect each important point

topics, gather resources, develop an outline,

278

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

and submit a first draft. Formative assessment

or a website; if the latter, it is called an electronic takes time.

portfolio or e-portfolio. The samples may be the

•

Comment more on major writing issues, such as

student’s best work, the widest variety of her

content, reasoning, and organization, and less on

good work, or the history of one or more major

style and grammar.

pieces of work—such as notes, outlines, peer and

•

Make your comments constructive, personalized,

instructor reviews, and multiple revisions in response and informal. Give praise where deserved, because

to those reviews (Bernhardt, 1992; Zubizarreta,

students often do not know what they are doing

2009). You grade only the total portfolio and the

right.

student’s reflections, typically at the end of the course.

•

Involve your students in providing useful, valid,

Beginning in the 1980s, student portfolios

and objective peer feedback by preparing a list of

started to acquire a strong following among English

nonevaluative questions that ask students to iden-

instructors from primary through postsecondary

tify features or parts of the work, as each student

levels. Those who use them testify that portfolios ensees them, or to give their personal reactions to the courage constructive dialogue between students and

work (Nilson, 2002–2003, 2003). Chapter Seven-

the instructor and motivate students to attempt more

teen furnishes details.

varied and adventuresome writing, take instructor

•

If you think your students are cognitively and

and peer feedback seriously, and revise their work,

emotionally mature enough to appraise each

often several times. Instructors in many disciplines, other’s work, teach them to do so by modeling

even mathematics and business, have developed

and explaining the process. Provide your own

their own versions of the portfolio, most of which

detailed comments on the drafts of the first paper,

encourage more creative demonstrations of learning

review your feedback methods with your class,

than do traditional assignments and tests (Belanoff & then oversee their comments on the drafts of the

Dickson, 1991; Crowley, 1993; Zubizarreta, 2009).

second paper. After that, students should be able

Consider, for example, the imaginative range

to provide decent peer feedback on their own.

of assessment artifacts that a mathematics portfolio

•

Make sure students understand that formative

can contain: samples of journal entries; written

feedback focuses on major problems in their work

explanations for each mathematical step of a complex

and that making the suggested changes does not

problem solution; a mathematics autobiography

guarantee them an A.

focusing on changing attitudes and new insights;

multiple solutions to a challenging problem, each

reflecting a different approach; an elegant proof,

STUDENT PORTFOLIOS

either intuitive or formal depending on the student’s abilities; student-developed lesson plans for teaching While very different from anonymous, one-time

a particular mathematical concept; student-developed

CATs, student portfolios allow you to assess and

word problems; student-drawn visual representations

document your students’ progress across written

of problems; student-made concrete representations;

products without attaching grades. A portfolio is a

and reviews of mathematical books and journal

collection of samples of a student’s work during the

articles—all in addition to examples of traditional

term, one that you and she may assemble together,

student output, such as tests, quizzes, and homework

along with her written reflections on the products

(Crowley, 1993; Stenmark, 1989, 1991).

or her own intellectual progress through writing

Portfolios are not without their problems, how-

them. It may take the form of a notebook or folder

ever. For example, postponing gradings until the end

Assessing Student Learning in Progress

279

of the course will not necessarily save you grading

spite of it. Then ask yourself if you can make the

time. Quite the contrary. While you may not have

time to give your students’ work the detailed, ongo-

to affix letters or points to students’ work until the ing feedback that is required.

end, you will probably assign more and more varied

writing projects and put more time and effort during

the term into giving formative feedback and hold-

EXTENDING CLASSROOM

ing student conferences on each project. Without this ASSESSMENT TO CLASSROOM

detailed, personalized feedback, none of the poten-

RESEARCH AND THE

tial benefits of portfolios will accrue. In addition, you SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHING

will otherwise suffocate at the end of the course un-

AND LEARNING

der an avalanche of paper or Web pages filled with

only vaguely familiar writing samples. In the terms

If you are collecting and examining systematic data

used above to describe CATs, portfolios entail very

on the teaching effectiveness or student appeal of one high effort on both your own and your students’ part

method over another, why not write up and publish

(Bernhardt, 1992; Zubizarreta, 2009).

your more interesting results? This type of research

Another serious problem for many students is

is the backbone of the college teaching field, as well the lack of grading during the term. Often they are

as the foundation of this book. It has been labeled

anxious not knowing where they stand and how they

“classroom research” and “action research,” but it is are doing, and some need to know early in the term

now most commonly called “the scholarship of teach-

to decide whether to stay in the course. Academic

ing and learning.” You probably already know how

regulations may not even allow such postponement

to conduct this kind of research, especially if you

of grades. At some universities, faculty are required are in psychology, education, or one of the social

to disclose midterm grades or to submit deficiency

sciences. Research on teaching typically relies on a

reports on students earning a C− or lower, and cur- quasi-experimental or a survey design, or it describes riculum committees will not approve new courses

and assesses an innovative method or curriculum (Nil-

unless a substantial part of the final grade is deterson, 1992). The proper design may require your

mined by the middle of the term.

collaborating with colleagues who are teaching the

A final challenge with using portfolios pertains

same or similar courses (Cross, 1992) or your con-

to grading standards. If a portfolio contains only stu-ducting a longitudinal study of classes before and with dents’ best work, how can anyone in the class not

the “treatment.”

receive a good grade? But the converse problem also

If you plan to conduct a survey of your students

arises: some instructors resist assigning deservedly low or use student products for your research, you must

grades to students who have worked so hard during

contact your university’s research compliance office at the term. Even with herculean effort, some students

least a few weeks before you begin and inquire about

barely pass a course, and it can be very difficult for an having your research plan reviewed by its Institutional instructor to break the bad news to them after all the Review Board (IRB). Typically IRBs grant classroom

time spent counseling and conferencing with them.

research an exemption, but you need evidence of its

Therefore, before adopting student portfolios,

review. A violation can cost your institution federal consider the following issues about delayed grading:

funding.

how your students might respond to it, if your in-

In addition, you probably have some back-

stitution’s academic regulations accommodate it, and

ground reading to do. Much of the scholarship of

whether you can uphold your quality standards in

teaching and learning is anchored in learning theory

280

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

or cognitive psychology, and your particular research similar to yours. Look for such periodicals in your

topic may have already inspired a body of literature.

institution’s main library, education library, or teach-You can search for relevant articles—and find

ing center library, and find electronic journals (some publication outlets—in the hard copy and electronic

are free) using a Web search engine.

journals and newsletters on college teaching. Some

Research on teaching is not new. Decades be-

specialize in a given discipline, a few in a specific fore Cross and Angelo (1993) started promoting the

teaching method (such as cooperative learning or

idea, economics and physics ushered in scholarly, sci-instructional technology), but most are general.

entific inquiry into student learning and achievement, Although each journal favors one or two types of

the most important outcome we can assess. These

articles, they collectively publish standard research fields have been on the forefront ever since, largely studies, literature reviews with insightful conclusions, because its members have been able to agree on the

evaluative descriptions of teaching innovations (how-

learning outcomes for certain courses and to develop

to articles), philosophical statements, and analyses of standardized tests to measure their attainment. Until current educational policies, problems, and trends

other disciplines can reach a similar consensus, their (Nilson, 1992). You should skim recent issues of

research predicting to student learning will be limited several journals to find those that publish manuscripts to small classroom samples.

C H A P T E R 29

Constructing Summative Assessments

A summativeassessment isaperformanceevalu- GENERALTESTINGGUIDELINES

ation that is intended to establish a recorded,

final judgment about the performer’s com-

Summative assessment is serious business to your

petence. By contrast, formative assessment, as we saw institution and especially to your students. If they are in the previous chapter, is intended to furnish helpful consistently performing poorly on your tests, you

feedback to the performer. A summative judgment

might find the reasons in this section.

may take the form of a grade, score, rating, ranking, or personnel decision. Typically much of the final

grade that we give students is based on summative

It’s All About Outcomes

assessment instruments called tests or exams, the

As Chapter Two explains, teaching at its best begins

shorter version of which are called quizzes, and

with developing and sequencing assessable student

writing assignments, which may also use visual or

learning outcomes, then selecting the teaching

sound media in addition to writing. This chapter

formats, methods, and moves that are most effective

summarizes the best practices in test construction

for helping students achieve those outcomes. Excel-

and techniques for designing meaningful summative

lent teaching also entails appropriate assessment—

assessments—first objective test items and then

specifically, constructing instruments that measure, as essay tests and writing assignments. In addition, it

directly as possible, the students’ success in achiev-examines the advantages and disadvantages of all

ing those outcomes. In the end, all three phases

types of test items.

of instruction—outcomes setting, teaching, and

281

282

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

assessing—should be woven into a multifaceted

section had only two midterms and a final and

arrangement of interdependent parts, each reflecting

the experimental section had biweekly exams and the

and reinforcing the others.

same final. The students in the experimental section

Therefore, before you begin writing a quiz or

scored one letter grade (ten percentage points) higher an exam, think seriously about what you are trying to on their biweekly exams and a grade and a half

accomplish with it. A test can assess just short-term (fifteen percentage points) higher on their final than memory skills or the abilities to comprehend, apply,

did the students in the control section. Moreover, the analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the material as well control section had a withdrawal rate of 11 percent

(Bloom, 1956; see Chapters Two and Fourteen). Re-

versus the experimental section, which had no with-

view your learning outcomes, and identify each one’s

drawals. The course and the instructor evaluations

cognitive level. If they focus primarily on knowledge, also differed markedly, with the experimental section comprehension, and application, then so should your

getting much higher ones.

test questions. Unless you have taught your students

•

Compose test questions immediately after you

and given them practice in thinking at the higher lev-cover the material in the class. The material and the els, questions pitched at these levels will not measure cognitive levels at which you taught it are fresh in

your students’ attainment of your outcomes. In other

your mind. Practiced regularly, this strategy ensures words, your tests will not be valid (Jacobs & Chase, you a stock of questions to use when quiz and exam

1992; Suskie, 2004; Walvoord & Anderson, 1998). In times arrive. Alternatively, you can have your students addition, your students will be doomed to perform

develop these questions at the end of class or as home-poorly.

work. They will want to compose clean, challenging

ones to increase the odds that theirs will appear on

Lessons Learned by Experience

a future test. After all, they know the answers to the The following recommendations represent much of

ones they made up.

the conventional wisdom on test construction (Jacobs

•

Give detailed, written instructions for all tests.

& Chase, 1992; Lacey-Casem, 1990; Ory & Ryan, Remind students about your and your institution’s

1993; Suskie, 2004; Walvoord & Anderson, 1998).

policies on academic dishonesty (see Chapter Eight).

Also specify how much time the test is allotted, how

•

Test early and often. Frequent testing yields many questions of each type, how many points each

benefits for both you and your students. Early testing item is worth, where to record answers, whether to

furnishes students with feedback they can use to opti-show work, and whether books, notes, or calculators

mize their course performance. Frequent testing gives can be used. Do not assume that your students com-them more opportunities for success, reducing the

mitted all this information to memory just because

penalties for any single poor performance. It also enyou announced it in class, in a handout, or some-

hances the reliability of your overall assessment—that where on the learning management system.

is, its stability, repeatability, and internal consistency.

Over more test items and occasions, the effects of ran-

•

Start the test with some warm-up questions.

dom errors, such as students’ misinterpretations and

Asking a few easy questions at the beginning of an

distractions, tend to weaken.

exam gives students some low-stress practice in re-

trieving the material and builds their confidence.

One recent experimental study on two sections

•

Have another instructor evaluate the test for

of a social statistics course backs up these claims

clarity and content. This is a particularly good idea if (Myers & Myers, 2007). Both sections had the same you are somewhat inexperienced at teaching or at the

content, instructor, and textbook, but the control

type of items you are using. You may have written a

Constructing Summative Assessments

283

quiz or exam that seems crystal clear to you, only to (Ory & Ryan, 1993). The objective varieties—

find out later that certain items were double-barreled, completion (fill-in-the-blank), true-false, matching, ambiguously phrased, or awkwardly constructed.

multiple choice, and multiple true-false, the least

Writing good test items is a hard-to-learn craft, and known and used on the list—are typically test

you need not learn it all by bad experience.

questions. Known for measuring knowledge and

•

Proofread the test form for errors. Check for comprehension, most types can also assess higher-spelling and grammar mistakes, split items (that is,

order thinking very efficiently. Since most objective items that begin on one page and continue on the

items can be graded by a scanning machine or a

next), inconsistencies and errors in format, missing

computer, they make regular assessment in large

or ambiguous instructions, and inadequate space for

classes possible. However, none can measure students’

constructed responses. It is best to have another set abilities to create, organize, communicate, define

of eyes—those of a colleague, your teaching assistant, problems, or conduct research.

your supervising professor, or even a friend or family Inexperienced instructors may think that objec-member—proofread the test form too.

tive questions are easy to construct, but unambiguous

•

After the test, conduct an item analysis of

and discriminating ones take time and thought. Pro-

your new objective items. If your completions, true-fessional test writers may produce only eight or ten

false,

matching,

multiple-choice,

and

multiple

usable questions a day. However, be wary of test bank true-false items are machine- or computer-graded,

items that come with your textbook. They are rarely,

check whether the overwhelming majority of your

if ever, composed by professionals, and they tend to

students missed certain questions. If so, these items tap only factual knowledge, sometimes of the trivial

are suspect, so you should examine them carefully

variety.

for unclear or ambiguous wording. Check also for

The rest of this section lays out the advantages

any items that all or almost all the students answered and disadvantages of each type of objective item

correctly. These items are also suspect because they

and furnishes guidelines for constructing them

failed to discriminate the more from the less knowl-

(Brookhart, 1999; Gronlund & Waugh, 2009; Jacobs

edgeable students. They probably were too obvious

& Chase, 1992; Jacobsen, n.d.; Lacey-Casem, 1990; or easy to guess right due to unintentional cuing in

Ory & Ryan, 1993; Suskie, 2004). Each type has its the wording. This type of item analysis is the basic

place, and some students do better with some types

one. To refine your analysis, you have to be able to

of questions than with others. Using a variety of

identify the best 10 to 15 percent of your students in questions on an exam allows students to feel more

the class, in which case you must have either tested

secure with the test format. Remember that you can

the class previously or accessed all your students’

teach your students to write good questions before

academic records. Either way, your best students’ item the test.

responses become your point of comparison. If all or

almost of them missed an item, it is probably faulty.

If they answered an item correctly and only a few in

Completion (Fill-in-the-Blank)

the rest of the class did, it is highly discriminating.

These items measure only how well students have

memorized facts, terms, and symbols, but some

material is so basic that students have to be able

OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS

to reproduce it. This type of item is well suited to

mathematical problems—assuming you do not need

In general, summative assessment instruments come

to see how your students arrived at the answer—

in two types: objective and constructed response, other-because they have only one exact right answer and

wise known as essay questions or writing assignments

students can’t work backward from given options,

284

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

as they can from multiple-choice items. However,

True/False

in other fields, the one right answer may have

This type of item encourages guessing because stu-

several acceptable versions. If the correct answer

dents have a fifty-fifty chance of getting an item right.

is John Fitzgerald Kennedy, you might consider

It also tends to focus on recall of terms and facts,

John F. Kennedy, John Kennedy, Jack Kennedy, J. F.

sometimes trivial ones. You can eliminate both limita-Kennedy, Kennedy, J.F.K., and some of the possible

tions by having students correct false statements. But misspellings of Kennedy acceptable. In such cases,

then you cannot use a machine or computer to grade

you cannot computer-score completion items unless

these items; the job will fall to you.

you can anticipate and specify every possible variation of the correct answer that you will accept as right.

Advantages

Your alternative is to restrict all fill-ins to one word and insist on the correct spelling.

•

Usually easy to prepare and grade

•

Can test a lot of material in a short time

Advantages

•

Can tap higher levels of cognition by having stu-

•

Easy to prepare and grade

dents correct the false statements

•

Assesses knowledge, recall, and vocabulary well

•

Useful as a diagnostic tool if students correct the

•

Eliminates guessing

false statements

•

Can test a lot of material in a short time

Disadvantages

Disadvantages

•

High guessing factor for

simple true-false

•

Cannot assess higher levels of cognition

questions

•

Highly structured and inflexible; may require an

•

May be difficult to think of unequivocally true or

all-or-nothing response

false statements

•

Not useful as a diagnostic tool

•

Encourages instructors to test trivial factual

•

May include grammatical clues

knowledge

•

Difficult to construct so that the desired response

•

Often fails to discriminate the more from the less

is unambiguous

knowledgeable students because the best students

•

Difficult to grade if more than one version of the

may see too many nuances, read in multiple mean-

right answer may be correct

ings, or conceive of exceptions

•

May be ambiguous

Construction

•

May include verbal clues (for example, questions

•

Allow thirty seconds to one minute per item.

with usually, seldom, and often are frequently true,

•

Use clear wording to elicit a unique response.

while those with never, always, and every are com-

•

Avoid grammatical cues. Use a/an and is/are, for monly false).

instance, to reduce cluing.

•

Omit only significant words from the statement.

Construction

•

Omit words from the middle or end of a state-

ment, not the beginning.

•

Allow thirty seconds to one minute per item.

•

Make all fill-in lines the same length.

•

Use only statements that are entirely true or en-

•

Place the response lines in a column to the left or

tirely false.

right to facilitate grading.

•

Focus each statement on a single idea or problem.

•

Use familiar language that is similar to what you

•

Write positive statements. Negative and double-

and the readings have used to explain the material.

negative statements are confusing.

Constructing Summative Assessments

285

•

Avoid verbal cues to the correct answers (for

representation of a cell, a part of human anatomy,

example, usually, seldom, often, never, always, and an electrical system, or a machine, you can have stu-every).

dents describe a process by specifying a sequence of

•

Use familiar language that is similar to what you

responses (Laird, 2004). Again, find out if your elecand the readings have used to explain the material.

tronic testing tool accommodates multiple-answer

•

Roughly balance the number of true and false an-

items.

swers.

The examples thus far assess only lower-level

•

Avoid always making true statements long and

thinking, but you can test higher-order cognitive skills false statements short, or vice versa. Students

by having students match causes with likely effects, quickly pick up on these patterns.

concepts with new examples of them, and new hypo-

•

Avoid direct quotes from lectures or readings re-

thetical problems with concepts, tools, or approaches quiring only rote memorization.

needed to solve them. Of course, “new” examples or

•

Add higher-level cognitive challenge and assess-

problems need just be new to your students.

ment validity by having students rewrite false

statements to make them true.

Advantages

•

Allow students to write a rebuttal to your marking

their answer wrong for a small percentage of the

•

Easy to grade

items.

•

Assesses knowledge and recall well and can assess

higher levels of cognition

•

Relatively unambiguous

Matching

•

Can test a lot of material in a short time

One way of looking at matching items is as a set of

multiple-choice items that share the same set of re-

Disadvantages

sponses (Suskie, 2004). The key to composing them

•

Difficult to construct a common set of stimuli and

is to assemble homogeneous items in the stimulus or

responses

question column with homogeneous items in the re-

•

High guessing factor

sponse or option column, such that every response

•

Not useful as a diagnostic tool

is plausible for every stimulus. Common matches in-

clude theories with their originator, people with their Construction

major achievement or work, causes with their effect,

terms with their definitions, foreign words with their

•

Allow thirty seconds to one minute per item.

translation, and pieces of equipment, tools, lab ap-

•

Keep stimuli and responses short and simple.

paratus, or organs with their use or function. If you

•

List the possible responses in some logical order,

wish, you can list stimuli with multiple correct re-

alphabetical or chronological, to reduce student

sponses; just inform students that some items may

search time.

have more than one answer or specify the number

•

Add challenge and reduce process-of-elimination

for each stimulus. Check to see whether the testing

thinking by inserting one or more unmatch-

tool in your learning management system can grade

able responses or one or more responses that

multiple-answer matching items.

match more than one stimulus. Just be sure

Matches can also involve visuals, such as

to add this statement to the directions: “Some

concepts or chemicals with their symbol, pictures of

responses may be used more than once and others

objects with their name, or labeled parts in a picture not at all.”

with their function. In fact, if your matching re-

•

To add even more challenge, include a few stim-

sponses are embedded in one large graphic, such as a

uli that require multiple responses or a sequence

286

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

of responses. Inform your students by adding this

from writing your own and teaching your students

or a similar statement to the directions: “Some

how to write good ones.

items require multiple responses or a sequence of

One way to guarantee that your multiple-

responses describing a process.”

choice questions will assess higher-order thinking is

•

Limit the list of stimuli and responses to fifteen or to compose what are called scenario-based (Instruc-fewer.

tional Assessment Resources, University of Texas at

•

Keep all stimuli and responses on one page.

Austin, 2007) or simulation-like (Thalheimer, 2002)

•

If students write down their response choice, have

items, or interpretive exercises (Suskie, 2004). These them use capital letters to avoid ambiguity.

are a series of multiple-choice items based on a new

(to the students), realistic stimulus—a table, graph, diagram, flowchart, drawing, photo, map, schematic,

Multiple Choice

equation, data set, description of an experiment,

No doubt multiple-choice items are the most popular

statement, quotation, passage, poem, situation, short type of objective test item in North America. Ed-case, or the like—that students must interpret intel-

ucational Testing Services and publishers’ test banks ligently to answer the items correctly. The process

rely on them heavily. You would think good ones

of interpreting and reasoning from the stimulus

would be easy to write, but they aren’t. A solid, clean normally requires—in addition to knowledge—

multiple-choice question avoids two tricky pitfalls:

comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, or

diverting a knowledgeable student away from the

evaluation. If you prefer, you can look at the types of correct response and cluing a poorly prepared student thinking involved as interpretation, inference, prob-toward the correct response (Suskie, 2004). Faulty

lem solving, generalization, and conclusion drawing.

phraseology and construction can do either. Test

This type of multiple-choice question frequently ap-

bank items that accompany textbooks usually avoid

pears in professionally written standardized tests, such these flaws, but they do so at the cost of challenging as the Scholastic Assessment Test and the Graduate

students and assessing their higher-order thinking.

Record Examination, and licensing exams, such as

To meet these higher standards, you have to search

the National Council of Licensure Examinations for

out proven, concept-oriented multiple-choice items

registered nurses and practical nurses. Here are two

or compose your own. If your area is the sciences,

college-level examples (reprinted with permission

you should be able to find some high-quality

from the Division of Instructional Innovation and

items in the Databases of Concept Questions at

Assessment, University of Texas at Austin, 2007),

www.skylight.science.ubc.ca/cqdatabases. Otherwise,

the first of which focuses on an experiment and the

search using “’clicker questions’ + teaching” and

second, on a situation or minicase. Correct answers

look for your discipline. But don’t be discouraged

are marked with an asterisk.

Scenario 1: Statistics

Two researchers were studying the relationship between amount of sleep each night and calories burned on an exercise bike for 42 men and women. They were interested if people who slept more had more energy to use during their exercise session. They obtained a correlation of .28, which has a two-tailed probability of .08. Alpha was .10.

Constructing Summative Assessments

287

1. Which is an example of a properly written research question?

a. Is there a relationship between amount of sleep and energy expended?*

b. Does amount of sleep correlate with energy used?

c. What is the cause of energy expended?

d. What is the value of rho?

2. What is the correct term for the variable amount of sleep?

a. Dependent*

b. Independent

c. Predictor

d. y

3. What is the correct statistical null hypothesis?

a. There is no correlation between sleep and energy expended.

b. Rho equals zero.*

c. R equals zero.

d. Rho equals r.

4. What conclusions should you draw regarding the null hypothesis?

a. Reject*

b. Accept

c. Cannot determine without more information

5. What conclusions should you draw regarding this study?

a. The correlation was significant

b. The correlation was not significant.

c. A small relationship exists.*

d. No relationship exists.

Scenario 2: Biology

One day you meet a student watching a wasp drag a paralyzed grasshopper down a small hole in the ground. When asked what he is doing, he replies, ‘‘I’m watching that wasp store paralyzed grasshoppers in her nest to feed her offspring.’’

1. Which of the following is the best description of his reply?

a. He is not a careful observer.

b. He is stating a conclusion only partly derived from his observation.*

c. He is stating a conclusion entirely drawn from his observation.

d. He is making no assumptions.

2. Which of the following additional observations would add the most strength to the student’s reply in question 1?

a. Observing the wasp digging a similar hole

b. Observing the wasp dragging more grasshoppers into the hole

288

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

c. Digging into the hole and observing wasp eggs on the paralyzed grasshopper*

d. Observing adult wasps emerging from the hole a month later 3. Both of you wait until the wasp leaves the area, then you dig into the hole and observe three paralyzed grasshoppers, each with a white egg on its side. The student states that this evidence supports his reply in question 1. Which of the following assumptions is he making?

a. The eggs are grasshopper eggs.

b. The wasp laid the eggs.*

c. The wasp dug the hole.

d. The wasp will return with another grasshopper.

4. You take the white eggs to the biology laboratory. Ten days later, immature wasps hatched from the eggs. The student states that this evidence supports his reply in question 1. Which of the following assumptions is he making?

a. The wasp dug the hole.

b. The wasp stung the grasshoppers.

c. The grasshoppers were dead.

d. A paralyzed grasshopper cannot lay an egg.*

Whether you use this type of multiple-choice

Construction

item or the standard kind, these are the plusses and

•

Estimate one to two minutes for students to an-

minuses and, if you or your students write them, the

swer each question.

best practices in constructing them:

•

Address one problem or concept per question.

•

Strive for clarity and conciseness; avoid wordiness.

Advantages

•

Include in the stem any words that may repeat in

•

Easy and quick to grade

the response alternatives.

•

Reduces some of the burden of large classes

•

Avoid lifting phrases directly from your lecture or

•

Can assess knowledge, comprehension, applica-

the readings and reducing the thinking required to

tion, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation and do

simple recall.

so more efficiently than constructed response

•

Still, use familiar language that is similar to what

questions

you and the readings have used to explain the ma-

•

Useful as a diagnostic tool since students’

terial.

wrong choices can indicate weaknesses and mis-

•

Make no, not, never, none, and except stand out by conceptions

italicizing, bolding, and underlining them.

•

Familiar to students

•

Write the correct response first, then the dis-

tractors.

Disadvantages

•

One way to develop the distractors is by juggling

•

Difficult and time-consuming to construct

the elements of (or the variables in) the correct

•

Can be ambiguous to students

response. For example, if you have students inter-

•

Encourages students to find the correct answer by

pret a table from which they should conclude that

process of elimination

more industrialized nations have lower birthrates

Constructing Summative Assessments

289

and infant mortality rates than less industrialized

Scenario-based or simulation-like multiple-

nations, the elements (or variables) are a nation’s

choice items (or interpretive exercises) have a few

degree of industrialization, birthrate, and infant

additional construction guidelines:

mortality rate. You can mix these variables

together in an assortment of ways. You might also

•

Give students prior practice in interpreting the

use other variables that students often confuse

types of stimuli you put on the test and in

with the elements—for instance, population

performing the cognitive operations each item

growth, which some students mistakenly equate

requires.

with birthrate.

•

Minimize interlocking items—that is, items that

•

Make all responses equally plausible and attractive.

responding to correctly requires having responded

Absurd options only make guessing easier.

correctly to previous items in the series.

•

Make all responses grammatically parallel and

•

Longer and more complex stimuli should yield a

about the same length.

longer series of multiple-choice questions.

•

Present the options in some logical order, alpha-

•

If you start looking for good stimuli, you will find

betical or chronological, to reduce the possibility

them; they are all around you.

of cuing students or falling into a pattern.

•

Be creative with the stimuli and use different

•

Avoid grammatical cues to correct answers.

kinds.

•

Use three to five responses per item—six at the

outside.

•

Make sure each item has only one correct or

Multiple True-False

clearly best response. Questions with multiple

Perhaps the least used, least known, and yet statis-

correct answers confuse students (but see the

tically strongest objective test question is the multi-

“Multiple True-False” section next).

ple true-false item. Like a multiple-choice item, it

•

Incorporate graphics where appropriate.

has a stem and a list of responses, and it may (or

•

If you want to use “none of the above” or “all

may not) involve interpreting a stimulus. But stu-

of the above,” use it liberally, not just when that

dents do not select one right response; they decide

answer is correct. These options discriminate the

whether each option is true or false in relation to the more from the less knowledgeable students; even

stem. Therefore, a multiple true-false item is flexible the “all of the above” option makes an item more

enough to accommodate multiple correct answers.

challenging to students (Huang, Trevisan, & Stor-

Here is an example with the true and false responses

fer, 2007).

marked:

When constructing a completion (fill-in-the-blank) test item, it is recommended that you: T 1. Allow thirty seconds to one minute for students to answer each item.

F 2. Locate the word(s) to fill in at the beginning of the sentence, not in the middle or at the end of it.

F 3. Vary the length of the fill-in lines according to the length of the correct answer.

T 4. Omit only significant words from the sentence to complete.

Note that a single stem, one multiple true-false

very efficiently using no more words than for one

item, presented four decision points—two incorrect

item. With ten stems, then, you can easily generate

distractors and two correct responses. In essence, it forty to fifty items, and a test with fifty items is much created four separate objective items, and it did so

more reliable than one with only ten. In summary,

290

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

multiple true-false items are more flexible, more ef-

Disadvantages

ficient, and more reliable than multiple-choice and

•

Time-consuming to grade given the amount of

most other objective test items (Ebel, 1978; Frisby & knowledge usually tested

Sweeney, 1982).

•

Difficult to standardize grading due to variability

Multiple true-false items share a great deal with

across answers

true-false and multiple-choice questions in terms

of their advantages, disadvantages, and construction

Construction

guidelines. However, they have a few of their own:

•

Estimate two to five minutes per item.

•

Be very specific and concise in identifying the task

Advantages

that students are to perform. See the advice be-

•

Superior flexibility, efficiency, and reliability

low for constructing essay questions and writing

•

Easier and quicker to develop a multiple true-false

assignments.

test than a multiple-choice test

•

Use familiar language that is similar to what you

•

Adds

challenge

and

eliminates

process-of-

and the readings have used to explain the material.

elimination thinking

•

Indicate whether diagrams or illustrations are

required or are acceptable in place of a written

Disadvantage

answer.

•

One faulty stem undercuts the value of multiple

•

Require students to show their work for full credit

items.

on problems.

•

Leave an appropriate amount of space for the

Construction

answers. Too much space invites students to write

•

Take extra care to write clear, concise, unambigu-

too much.

ous stems.

•

Be sure the distractors are clearly true or false in

relation to the stem.

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE

•

Consider allowing students to write a rebuttal to

INSTRUMENTS: ESSAY QUESTIONS

your marking their answer wrong for a small per-

AND WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

centage of the items.

A constructed response instrument is an interroga-

Short Answer

tory statement (a question) or an imperative state-

Instructors typically use a short-answer question to

ment (a task description) that an instructor composes test recall, comprehension, or application. Given its to assess student achievement of one or more learn-length limitation, it does not allow students to con-

ing outcomes. The responses are student structured

struct or justify a deeply considered response.

and written in multiple complete sentences, and each

is uniquely original or at least different from each

Advantages

other. In addition, the question or task has multiple

•

Easy to construct

respectable answers or responses that only a specialist

•

Can assess recall, comprehension, and application

in the subject matter can fairly assess. Stalnaker (1951)

•

Requires a command of vocabulary or problem-

proposed this strict definition for essay questions, but solving skills

it applies just as well to good writing assignments.

•

Very useful as a diagnostic tool

For our purposes here, let’s use the term writing

•

Encourages instructors to give students individual

assignment to cover any assignment with a significant feedback

writing component, even one that incorporates other

Constructing Summative Assessments

291

media. Therefore, the term includes a video produc-

objective test items. You must interpret your students’

tion if it has a script and a multimedia e-portfolio if it sometimes rambling thoughts, distracting grammar

integrates reflection. If you drop Stalnaker’s requireand spelling, and confusing punctuation, and then

ment for multiple complete sentences, even complex

evaluate variable content. So you should be efficient graphics, such as concept maps, mind maps, and con-in your use of essay tests and writing assignments.

cept circle diagrams (see Chapter Twenty-Six), can

You need use them only when the learning outcomes

qualify as essay questions or writing assignments.

you are assessing indicate higher-order thinking that Constructed response instruments, especially es-requires construction, as opposed to selection, of an say tests, have been misnamed “subjective” (as op-answer. (Even in this case, you can assign a graphic

posed to “objective”). This poorly chosen descriptor

like a concept or mind map for some tasks.) If your

makes a mockery of professional judgment and gives

outcome allows students either to construct or to

students the mistaken impression that faculty have no select the answer, then you have your choice of an

clear standards for evaluating their written work. We essay test question, a writing assignment, or one or

do have standards, of course, but they often do not

more objective test items. If your outcome calls only boil down to a dualist right or wrong answer. More-for selection, then you might as well use objective test over, each of us may prioritize different criteria on items (Reiner, Bothell, Sudweeks, & Wood, 2002).

given essay questions and assignments. This is why

Essay questions and writing assignments share

we should explain our grading criteria and standards

most of the same advantages, disadvantages, and con-

to students at the same time we talk about the test or struction guidelines, which are listed below. Those

the assignment (see Chapter Thirty-One).

that apply only to essay test questions are marked

By Stalnaker’s (1951) strict definition, an essay

with a †.

must demand higher-order thinking; it cannot ask

students merely to regurgitate material from class or Advantages

the readings, even in their own words. By extrapola-

tion, an application question or task must use prob-

•

Quick and relatively easy to construct (but specify

lems, cases, diagrams, graphs, data sets, and the like exactly what you want students to do, following

that the students have not seen before. Therefore, this the guidelines in the next section)

set of questions does not constitute an essay question,

•

Encourages students to study in a deeper, more

let alone a good writing assignment: “What are the

integrated manner†

six major capital budgeting techniques? Define them

•

Discourages last-minute cramming†

(you need not give their formula). Under what two

•

Can assess all types of higher-order thinking

categories are they normally grouped? Categorize all

•

Can assess students’ abilities to logically compose

six techniques.” Every introductory finance textbook

and present an argument

supplies the answers to these questions. This next set

•

Can assess their reasoning skills (you get inside

is less clear: “What is the difference between exper-

their heads)

imental research and survey research? What do they

•

Can assess them authentically—that is, on tasks

have in common?” If the course addressed exper-

that they are likely to do in real-world work

imental research and survey research independently

•

Can encourage creativity and originality

and never drew comparisons or contrasts between the

•

Requires students to really know the material

two methods, then this set indeed qualifies as an essay

•

Gives practice in writing

question or a suitable writing assignment.

•

Makes cheating more difficult and reduces its

Even with the time-saving grading methods

incidence†

that Chapter Thirty-One recommends, constructed

•

Encourages instructors to give students individual

responses take more time and effort to grade than do

feedback

292

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Varies the type of assessment from objective

•

Put on the test your estimate of how long an an-

tests (yet yields the same student rankings as

swer should take students, helping them budget

do multiple-choice tests, according to Jacobs &

their time wisely.†

Chase, 1992)†

•

Give the point value for each essay.†

•

Give several shorter essay questions rather than

Disadvantages

one or two long ones. This strategy covers more

material and spreads the risk for students.

•

More time-consuming to grade than objective

•

Consider giving students a choice among several

items (but see Chapter Thirty-One for ways to

essay questions. Having options lowers their anxi-

cut that time)

ety and lets them show you the best of what they

•

Difficult to standardize grading because of vari-

have learned.

ability across answers as well as length of answers

•

If you let students choose among several questions,

(but see Chapter Thirty-One for ways to handle

limit their choices—for example, to five out of

the variability)

seven options rather than five out of ten.

•

Cannot test broad content with any one question†

•

Penalizes students who read or work slowly, have

Making Essay Questions and Writing

poor writing skills, or are nonnative English

Assignments Specific Enough

speakers

Be specific and concise in describing the task you

•

Can mislead students if they do not understand

want students to perform or the answer you expect

the verbs used in the questions or don’t read the

to the questions you ask. Identify the key points that entire question very carefully

students should address. You might even specify the

•

Encourages grading protests if the scoring may

cognitive operations and the general content that

seem subjective, inconsistent, or unjustified (but

students should use in their responses. Rather than

see Chapter Thirty-One for ways to nearly elimi-

beginning a question with an interrogative pronoun

nate protests)

such as why, how, or what, start with a descriptive

•

Easy to make a question or task too broad for stu-

verb (see Chapter Thirty for a list of common test

dents to zero in on the answer

and assignment verbs and their definitions) and state

•

Allows students to pick up credit for bluffing and

exactly how elaborate the answer should be and, to

padding

an extent, how it should be organized (Reiner et al.,

•

Produces poor, hasty writing, and students do not

2002)—for instance: “Describe three ways that social learn to improve it†

integration could break down in the modern world,

according to Durkheim. Then assess how closely each Construction

one applies to the United States today.”

All you have to do is to decide exactly how you

•

Specify exactly what you want the students to do,

would like an excellent answer to read. Then you

following the guidelines in the next section.

can transform a vague question like, “What were the

•

Estimate fifteen minutes to one hour per essay

causes of the collapse of the Ming dynasty?” into a

question.†

well-defined, multistage task:

Select three key causes of the collapse of the Ming dynasty, and decide which was most important, which was second in importance, and which was last in importance. Write a paragraph on each cause, not only describing its impact on the Ming dynasty, but also arguing why you rank-order it as you do.

Explain any interrelationships that exist among the causes.

Constructing Summative Assessments

293

By incorporating the proper procedure to fol-

“Explain Shakespeare’s view of women as reflected in

low, the instructions reinforce students’ understanding his plays,” can be elaborated into a review of basic

of historical interpretation and analysis while assess-literary analysis:

ing their ability to do it. Similarly, the rudderless task, Pick three of Shakespeare’s plays that feature women in major roles, and analyze these characters to identify four patterns in his views of women. Consider not only what these female characters do and say but also what other characters do and say to them.

If the content lends itself, it is also an excellent

reason is authentic. You can take a theoretical task

strategy to situate an essay question or writing assign-such as, “Explain how a nurse should handle a per-

ment in a novel (but not foreign) problem (Reiner

son who threatens suicide,” and place it in a realistic et al., 2002). Problem-focused assessment gives stu-situation:

dents practice in real-world application and for this In the emergency department, a patient tells the nurse that he plans to commit suicide and agrees to a voluntary admission to the psychiatric unit. What specific issues should the nurse discuss with the patient when he asks, ‘‘How long do I have to stay there?’’ (Adapted from http://findarticles.com

/p/articles/mi qa3689/is 200408/ai n9444981.)

The last example of an essay question or writ-

the 1960s.” The revision assumes that students can

ing assignment that needs and gets a makeover asks

perform this low-level task and requires that they anstudents to perform a low-level and vaguely stated

alyze and synthesize that knowledge in a new way to

task: “Summarize the most important trends in social

address a contemporary real-world paradox:

inequality that we have seen in the United States since Recall the trends in social inequality that we have seen in the United States since the 1960s. Also recall that during this time (1) the relationship between educational and income attainment has been consistently positive and (2) educational attainment has increased. Then how is it possible that the distributions of income and wealth have become more polarized over this time period? Resolve this apparent contradiction, taking into account other major determinants of income, the role of the occupational structure, and the type of economy in the United States.

With direction, organization, and hints in the

you will be able to select and implement the teach-

instructions, you can equip your class to perform truly ing formats, methods, and moves that will create the

high-order cognitive operations. But do remember

learning experiences to give your students the practice that you have to give your students plenty of prior

they need.

practice in the types of thinking you ask them to do

If you want to use an essay question or give

in graded assessments. If you identify these types of a writing assignment that students may view as

thinking from the start in your learning outcomes,

controversial or value based, do assure them in

294

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

advance that you will assess their work strictly on

•

Design a society, government, private or public

the validity of their arguments, the strength of their organization, or funding agency to accomplish a

evidence, or the quality of their presentation—not

certain purpose.

the opinion or viewpoint they express. Be sure to

incorporate whatever grading dimensions you define

in your grading rubric (see Chapter Thirty-One).

TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS:

THE ULTIMATE TEACHING

Ideas for Good Essay Questions

EVALUATIONS

and Writing Assignments

For a little inspiration, consider how you might adapt The time and effort invested in writing a good test or these general ideas for engaging essay questions and

assignment are not without reward. It is heartening

writing assignments to your course material:

to see your students perform well on a challenging

task or to receive a compliment on the task from a

•

Discuss the relevance of course material to a life

student. Both indicate that your test or assignment

decision.

was a worthwhile learning experience as well as a fair

•

Argue against a position you believe in.

evaluation.

•

Set the conditions under which a relationship or

But even more important, the tests and assign-

concept does and does not apply.

ments you design are the most important instruments

•

What if

(a specific change occurs, time or

you have for assessing your teaching effectiveness.

place shifts, or an assumption is violated)? Would a

For your sake as well as your students’, they should

relationship still hold? How would it be changed?

measure what you set out to teach. Student, peer, and

•

Push an idea to its limits, to the point of absurdity.

self-evaluations are other instruments, and student

•

Determine whether a problem can or cannot be

opinions of your success generally carry the most

solved given available information.

weight. But they merely take the place of the only

•

Separate relevant from irrelevant information to

real teaching evaluation, which is how much students

solve a problem.

have learned.

•

Break a problem into subproblems.

In the best of all possible educational worlds,

•

Explain a specific complex phenomenon to a

each major exam would be tested to ensure high

twelve year old.

reliability and validity, and each assignment would

•

Design a study to test a relationship.

be reviewed and enhanced by your peers. Then

•

Consider why a relationship may be causal or

student performance would be used to evaluate

spurious.

the instructor’s teaching success relative to other

•

Suggest reasons that different research studies may

instructors teaching the same course. Of course,

obtain different results.

such an ideal could come to pass only if faculty

•

Design a study to reconcile different results across

could agree on standardized learning outcomes, con-

different studies.

tent, assignments, and testing instruments for each

•

Imagine you are a

with the following

course—a notion that goes against academic freedom

problem to solve:

. Draw on course

and autonomy. Still, how well your students perform

material to structure an approach to the problem

on summative assessments is the best data you can use or to propose a solution.

for your personal self-assessment of your teaching.

C H A P T E R 30

Preparing Students for Tests

Recallyourundergraduatedays.Didyouever problemsorsituations.Itisthatlattertypeofstudy-experience anxiety or a sense of dread when

ing that helps students develop critical thinking skills, your professors announced an exam? Did you

and they need experience in the higher cognitive pro-

ever walk into a test feeling pretty well prepared, only cesses of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In fact, to freeze when you saw the first question? Did you

students perform better on the multiple-choice por-

ever leave an exam thinking that you aced it, only

tion of a test if they know there will be an essay

to be sorely disappointed in your grade? If even one

question on it (Drake, 2009). In other words, studying of these situations rang true, you can probably em-to use higher-order thinking on a test better prepares pathize with some of the emotions your students are

a learner to perform whatever level of cognitive op-

experiencing now.

eration is required. Of course, multiple-choice items The first question you usually hear when you

can call for much more thought than just recall and

announce an upcoming exam is, “What will be on

comprehension.

the test?” While this is not a valid question, another common query, “What will the test format be?” is

perfectly valid. We’d like to believe that students will TEST PREPARATION MEASURES

perform well on any type of test with adequate study.

But different types of exams call for different types If we accept that tests can be instruments of instruc-of study strategies, and most students learn based on tion as well as evaluation, then preparing students to how they are tested (Wergin, 1988). Factual mem-perform well on tests is also an excellent teaching

orization for a recall-oriented objective test takes a strategy. Here are some easily implemented ways to

different kind of study effort from that for analyses of help students get ready for exams.

295

296

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Reading and Review Strategies

outline of important topics that you have emphasized, You begin preparing your students for tests from the

but this alone will not tell students how to study this very first day by teaching them proven techniques for content.

taking notes on your lectures and class activities, pro-Students gain much more from a sample test or

vided in Chapter Twelve, and for reading academic

a list of review questions. These questions should mir-material effectively, given in Chapter Twenty-Three.

ror your student learning outcomes and represent the

Of course, students should review the relevant

variety of item formats that will appear on the test.

readings and their notes before a test. More than

If you plan to use some factual and terminological

80 percent of the studies conducted on reviewing

multiple-choice questions on the test, then put some

lecture notes find that the activity enhances test

of those items on the review sheet. If you intend to

performance (Bligh, 2000). But just reading notes

test analysis and synthesis, develop some questions that over, even multiple times, will not help much for

require those same cognitive operations. This method

the test. As research cited in Chapter Twenty-Three

demands much more of your time and effort because

indicates, the quickest, most efficient, and most

you do not want to duplicate the sample items on the

effective way to study written material, at least for real test. But it is highly effective, and you can draw factual and problem-solving tests, is “active recall”

appropriate items from previous tests.

or the 3R (read-recite-review) strategy (McDaniel,

Perhaps the best option for students is what is

Howard, & Einstein, 2009; Roediger & Karpicke, called a “test blueprint” (Questionmark Corporation,

2006). According to this method, students read a

2000; Suskie, 2004), and it can also help you design

section of their text or notes, then put the material a test that assesses your students’ achievement of your away, recite aloud as much as they can remember, and

outcomes. So have your syllabus and outcomes map

finally reread the section. In addition to reinforcing their reading by restating and hearing the material,

handy. To make a test blueprint, begin by listing all the students practice retrieval with self-testing, which is major content areas that your test will address; then exactly the skill they will need during the test.

designate their relative importance by the percentage of the test (or number of points) to be devoted to each area. Within each content area, write down what

Study Groups

you want students to be able to do or demonstrate , Several of the chapters in this book point out how

using action verbs and avoiding internal-states verbs groups facilitate learning. Study groups that meet

such as know, understand, realize, and appreciate (see regularly outside class are also very helpful (Hufford, Chapter Two). These statements should reflect your

1991; Treisman, 1986). Since member commitment

student learning outcomes, though perhaps on a more

can make or break them, consider formalizing them

microlevel than in your syllabus or outcomes map.

by having students sign up for such groups early in

Finally, allocate points or items across these outcome the term. Then distribute a list of all the groups with statements according to how central they are in this

their members’ names and contact information.

part of the course. In other words, instead of just listing concepts for students to “know,” tell them more

Review Sheets

specifically that, for instance, they should be able to This study aid helps many students prepare for a test, recognize the definitions, purposes, and examples of a especially first-year and second-year students who do list of concepts and be able to reproduce a given list not yet know what college-level assessment involves.

of principles. Then let these statements serve as the You can make a review sheet as simple as a list or

blueprint for your test questions.

Preparing Students for Tests

297

Review Sessions

within a time period that replicates what the test will allow for such a question. This activity furnishes a

About three-quarters of the students say that they

test-taking rehearsal, which generally reduces anxiety want a pretest review session (Mealy & Host, 1993), and enhances performance. The students in each pair

so you may want to schedule one during a class or

compare and evaluate their different approaches to

outside class, as do many instructors. But it is likely the question, giving them practice in critical think-to work well only if students have already made sig-

ing. As time permits, you can repeat the “shuffle.”

nificant progress in their independent or small-group You can then collect the questions (and responses)

studying. Therefore, you should make it clear that you and use the best ones on the test. Not only does this will not be summarizing the past few weeks of lec-review exercise supply you with an already-vetted

tures and readings or dispensing the answers to the

test (or discussion) question bank, but it also serves review questions.

as a classroom assessment technique (see Chapter

The most productive way to conduct a review

Twenty-Eight), informing you about your students’

session is to insist that students come prepared to ask understanding of the material to be tested and

specific questions on the material and answer any re-

possibly giving you the chance before the test to clear view questions on their own. With respect to their

up their misconceptions and help them improve their

questions, always ask the class for answers before an-essay writing (Millis, 2005).

swering them yourself. With respect to the review

questions, have the entire class participate in brain-Help Sessions or Course Clinics

storming and refining the answers, and assign different This measure takes the review session one step further questions to small groups and have them develop and

by establishing weekly meetings of one or more hours

orally present their answers. Invite other students to during which you or your teaching assistant answers

evaluate the group’s answers, and then offer your own questions. A regularly scheduled meeting motivates

assessment.

students to keep up with the course and not wait un-

Chapter Twelve describes another version of this

til the last minute to cram for a test. It also reduces format called pair/group and review, in which stu-stress by encouraging students to study without the

dent pairs or small groups develop answers to review

impending threat of an exam.

questions, after which you randomly select a few of

them to present their answers to the class. You then

Definitions of Key Test Terms

mock-grade them and explain your assessment crite-

Students, especially in their first year, often do poorly ria or, better yet, have the rest of the class mock-grade on tests because they are not exactly sure what a

the answers to help students learn how to assess their question, especially an essay question, is asking them own work.

to do. They do not know what the verb designating

One more variation, this one tailored to an

the task means, at least not the way we use the verb.

essay test, is the question

shuffle (Millis, 2005).

This sometimes explains why some students fail to

Students attending the review session must bring in

follow directions. So it may be safest to provide them two essay questions, each on an index card, that they with written definitions of common test verbs,

think would be appropriate for the test. They pair

along with review questions that give them practice

off, review their four questions, and select the best in the cognitive operations. Therefore, consider shar-two. Then all the pairs circulate for a few moments,

ing the definitions below with your classes (Anderson shuffling their two cards among other pairs. From

& Krathwohl, 2000; Ellis, 2006; Lacey-Casem, 1990; the two questions they wind up with, the pairs select Moss & Holder, 1988; Reiner, Bothell, Sudweeks, & one to answer, and each student writes out an answer

Wood, 2002):

298

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Analyze: Break something down into parts, such

•

Illustrate: Use a concrete example to explain or as a theory into its components, a process into its

clarify the essential attributes of a problem or con-

stages, or an event into its causes. Analysis involves cept, or clarify a point using a diagram, chart,

characterizing the whole, identifying its parts, and

table, or other graphic.

showing how the parts interrelate.

•

List/enumerate: Give the essential points one by

•

Assess/criticize/critique/evaluate:

Determine

or

one, in a logical order if applicable. It may be help-judge the degree to which something meets

ful to number the points.

or fails to meet certain criteria. If not provided

•

Outline/review/state: Organize a description un-in the question, develop criteria for making

der main points and subordinate points, omitting

judgments.

minor details and classifying the elements or main

•

Categorize/classify:

Sort into major, general

points.

groups, or types that you name or identify.

•

Predict: Infer from facts, trends, or principles what

•

Compare/contrast: Identify the important sim-will happen in the future.

ilarities and differences between two or more

•

Propose: Suggest or present for consideration.

elements in order to reveal something significant

•

Prove/validate: Establish that something is true about them. Identify similarities if the command

by citing factual evidence or giving clear, logical

is to compare and differences if it is to contrast.

reasons.

•

Create/devise: Put together, organize, or reorga-

•

Summarize: Briefly restate the main points.

nize elements to make a new approach, product,

•

Synthesize: Put together elements in a new way process, or solution.

so as to make a novel theory, approach, product,

•

Defend/justify: Give good reasons to support a process, or solution.

position, and explain how or why something hap-

•

Trace: Describe the course or progress of a phe-pened.

nomenon, trend, or development.

•

Define/identify: Give the key characteristics by which a concept, thing, or event can be understood. Place it in a general class; then distinguish

it from other members of that class.

ANXIETY-REDUCTION MEASURES

•

Describe: Give the characteristics by which an object, action, process, person, or concept can be

Moderate anxiety is normal before a major test and

recognized or visualized.

indeed can motivate and energize students. From

•

Develop: Create, elaborate on, or make more ef-their review of the test anxiety literature, Mealy

fective, detailed, or usable.

and Host (1993) identified three types of anxious

•

Discuss/examine: Debate, argue, and evaluate the students. Those of the first type lack adequate study various sides of an issue.

skills and are aware of the problem; they are not well

•

Explain/justify: Give the basic principles of or prepared for exams and worry about performing

reasons for something; make it intelligible. Expla-

poorly. The second group comprises students who

nation may involve relating the unfamiliar to the

have adequate study strategies but become severely

more familiar.

distracted during a test. Other research confirms these

•

Generate: Think up, devise, or brainstorm good two categories of anxious students (Naveh-Benjamin,

ideas or alternatives.

McKeachie, & Lin, 1987). The final type consists

•

Infer: Logically conclude on the basis of what is of students who mistakenly believe that they have

known.

adequate study skills but do poorly on exams, then

•

Interpret/explain: State what you think the author wonder what the problem could be. They may blame

or speaker of a quotation or statement means,

instructors and “unfair exams” for their falling short and why.

of their high expectations.

Preparing Students for Tests

299

Mealy and Host (1993) also asked students how

•

Test frequently, reducing the relative weight of each an instructor can affect their anxiety before, during, test so that one poor performance will not cost stu-and after a test. They received four kinds of responses: dents dearly.

•

Tailor your tests to the time allotted. If it takes

1. Seventy-five percent of the students want their inyou so many minutes to complete one of your

structor to conduct some kind of review before

tests, figure that it will take your students three

the test and are less anxious after attending one.

times as long. Not being able to finish a test

They feel more confident if they are sure they

discourages students, even if you tell them they are

have correct information in their notes.

not expected to finish it.

2. Students become stressed when their instructor

•

Teach students relaxation techniques, such as deep

tells them that the test will be hard. They do not

breathing, counting to ten, and visualizing a suc-

mind a challenging exam, but they want to hear

cessful test session (Ellis, 2006; Hebert, 1984).

how they should study, followed by some words

of reassurance.

Occasionally you may have a student for whom

3. Most students get nervous when their instructor

test anxiety is a debilitating problem. Refer this indi-walks around the room during a test and looks

vidual to your institution’s counseling center, as you over their shoulders. While this may keep cheating

should for other emotional and psychological prob-

in check, it also raises the anxiety of stress-sensitive lems, or the learning skills and academic assistance

students.

center.

4. Many students resent interruptions during a test.

Even if their instructor breaks in just to correct or clarify an exam item, it throws off their train of

WHAT THE EFFORT IS WORTH

thought.

In summary, taking measures to prepare your

Taking measures to prepare your students for a test is students for tests, such as providing quality review

one way to ensure that they review, synthesize, and

sheets and review sessions, along with building their retain the material. Some of these measures can also

self-confidence and minimizing test interruptions, will help you better plan and organize a test so that it as-help allay their test anxiety. So will these actions: sesses exactly what you want to assess. Whatever else you can do to reduce your students’ test anxiety al-

•

Have your test schedule written in your syllabus,

lows them to better demonstrate their actual learning and stick to it.

and gives you a more valid assessment of their under-

•

Have in your syllabus a clear grading system and

standing. It is only by seeing their honest achievement your policies on missed quizzes and tests.

that you can appraise how successful your teaching has

•

Consider dropping your students’ lowest test or

been. In your performance review, you may also want

quiz score from your final grade calculations;

to use some of your students’ tests to document your

anyone can have a bad day or a legitimate reason

teaching effectiveness, a topic addressed in Chapter

for missing a class.

Thirty-Two.

C H A P T E R 31

Grading Summative Assessments

Grading is a task you may view with dread the University of Michigan introduced a pass/fail and disdain, as the vast majority of your col-system that set the passing grade minimum at 50 per-

leagues do. But it furnishes essential feedback

cent. In 1883, Harvard began using letter grades. This to your students on their performance and, to a cer-system soon swept the country, but with tremendous

tain extent, to you on your teaching effectiveness. Of disagreement on the grade cut-off points. For in-course, grades cannot provide the whole picture on

stance, Mount Holyoke established the failing grade

your teaching because assessment standards vary radi-

at 75 percent, while Michigan maintained the 50

cally across the academy and some students are unable percent standard. Interestingly, Harvard set the lowest or unwilling to learn, no matter what you do.

failing mark, just 26 percent. Higher education

eventually closed the discrepancies in the scale but

has otherwise made few major changes in this system,

THE MEANING OF GRADES

except to add “plus” and “minus” modifiers, and not

at all institutions (Hammons & Barnsley, 1992).

Historically, grading is a relatively new phenomenon

Faculty, students, parents, and businesspeople

in the academy (Hammons & Barnsley, 1992). Yale

do not agree on the meaning of grades (Pollio &

University was the first American institution to

Humphreys, 1988). For instance, when asked how

assign grades, starting in 1783. To classify student

long the impact of receiving a C versus an A would

performance, faculty used Latin descriptors ranging

last, a full 53 percent of the faculty respondents

from the exceptional optime to the dismal pejores. In expected it would last at least two to five years. So 1800, Yale adopted a numerical scale of 0 to 4, thus

did a third of the parents and businesspeople. But

initiating the grade point average. Later the College of only 14 percent of the students surveyed agreed,

William and Mary adopted a similar scheme. In 1850,

and 45 percent anticipated no impact at all. While

301

302

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

many students may not want to believe that grades

Norm-Referenced Grading

are important to their futures, one of your major

The first type of summative grading system, com-

responsibilities is to evaluate their achievement and monly called grading on a curve, assesses each

assign grades accordingly. In addition, you are res-

student’s performance relative to all other students’

ponsible for upholding the value of the grading

performances. Its relative nature gives it some serious currency—that is, combating grade inflation. So it is flaws. First, the more strictly that faculty implement worth reviewing the level of performance each grade

it, the more it places students in competition with

represents:

each other for class ranking. Therefore, you cannot

expect students to work cooperatively together in

•

An A signifies an exceptional level of achievement.

graded group work. Second, it statistically assumes

The student displays a superb command of the

a bell-shaped (“normal”) distribution of student

subject matter and can creatively apply it at many

scores—a phenomenon that doesn’t always occur.

different levels. A students tend to be committed,

Third, the grades the system yields are unrelated

motivated, and cognitively gifted.

to any absolute performance standard. So if all

•

A B indicates a good but not outstanding level

students in a class perform poorly, some inadequate

of achievement. B students demonstrate a decent

performances will receive an A anyway. Conversely,

grasp of the material and the ability to apply at

in a high-achieving class, some good performances

several but not all levels.

will unjustly get a C.

•

A C represents a fair level of achievement. The

Nevertheless, this system also has its strengths.

student shows some mastery of the material and a

The best and worst performances set the parameters

narrow application range. This grade may indicate

within which other performances are judged, so an

poor study skills, a lack of motivation or interest,

instructor can give a very challenging test without

or low ability. Some C students get by on their

unduly lowering his students’ grades or an easy one

decent test-taking skills.

while still differentiating the quality of student per-

•

A D means that the student has little or no true

formance. It also ensures any class grade point average understanding of the subject area and may not be

an instructor considers reasonable, so it can combat

motivated or able to learn it.

grade inflation.

•

An F denotes a performance below the level of

In the past couple of decades, norm-referenced

random chance. The student lacks interest, moti-

grading has fallen into disfavor for at least a couple vation, or ability.

of reasons. For one, higher education has widely em-

braced group work, and for another, it no longer aims to screen out the low achievers. The retention rate has SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS AND

replaced the attrition rate as an institution’s badge of GRADING SYSTEMS

honor.

Summative assessment occurs at the end of a learning

Criterion-Referenced Grading

process, which may occur after a section of a course

This second type of grading system requires in-

or at the end of the course. It typically follows

structors to set absolute standards of performance

one of two basic grading systems (Hammons &

(grading criteria) in advance, giving all students sole Barnsley, 1992; Ory & Ryan, 1993; Prégent, 1994;

responsibility for their own grades. Compared to

Wergin, 1988):

norm-referenced or

criterion-

norm-referenced, criterion-referenced grading better

referenced grading.

serves the purpose of assessing how well students

Grading Summative Assessments

303

achieve given learning outcomes. It allows the pos-

•

Validity across items, which means discarding an

sibility that all students will attain A’s or, conversely, objective test item that practically all the students that all students will fail. In addition, it does not missed (see item analysis in Chapter Twenty-Nine)

discourage cooperation and collaboration among

•

Grading standards appropriate for the level of your

students.

students

To be sure, criterion-referenced grading has

its drawbacks. In particular, it is difficult to develop Consistency

meaningful, valid standards for assigning grades based

•

Clearly written grading keys and rubrics for as-

on absolute knowledge acquisition (Ory & Ryan,

sessing responses, particularly if multiple graders

1993). Instructors who are unfamiliar with their

are involved

student population may have no idea how scores

•

Consensus among multiple graders, which will

will distribute on any given test or assignment. (As

require discussion of problematic answers

the nightmare goes, all the scores cluster around

•

Maintenance of student anonymity to avoid grad-

95 percent or all lag below 70.) But with more

ing biases

experience, instructors learn how to design and grade tests and assignments to differentiate performances.

Learning Value

•

Sharing studying, writing, problem-solving, and

test-taking techniques with your class

THE QUALITIES OF A SOUND

•

Providing a grading rubric (defined in the next

GRADING SYSTEM

section) before an essay test or the due date of a

writing assignment or a detailed grading key when

returning tests

A sound grading scheme is accurate, consistent, and

•

Going over your rubric with students to ensure

valuable to learning. Larger classes require special

they understand it

efforts to ensure these qualities, especially consistency.

•

Supplying samples of exemplary work and helping

Following these guidelines should enhance the

students understand what makes them excellent,

soundness of your grading system (Jacobs & Chase, preferably before the essay test or due date

1993; Lacey-Casem, 1990; Ory & Ryan, 1993;

•

For writing assignments, allowing students to

Walvoord & Anderson, 1998):

make revisions after providing formative assess-

ments on first drafts

Accuracy

•

Commenting as generously as your time al-

•

A final course grade based on many and varied

lows, including on what the student did right

assignments and tests

(Too many negatives are overwhelming and

•

Well-constructed quizzes and tests reflecting your

counterproductive.)

student learning outcomes (see Chapter Twenty-

•

Making specific comments, not a cryptic “What?”

Nine)

or “?”

•

Point values on tests that reflect the relative impor-

•

Identifying a few key areas for improvement, es-

tance of the concepts, principles, and relationships

pecially those emphasized in your grading rubric,

•

Clear and unambiguous written instructions for

and specific remediation methods

tests and assignments

•

Directing comments to the performance, not the

•

Grading keys and rubrics that, where appropri-

student

ate, allow the possibility of more than one correct

•

Reviewing exams when you return them so that

answer

students understand what you wanted and how

304

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

they can improve their performance, with a focus

for a total of fifty points. In terms of allocating points on frequently made errors

on such criteria, this method resembles analytical

•

Referring some students to your institution’s aca-

grading, addressed later in the chapter.

demic assistance center for special help

Do explain your general assessment dimensions

and their point values to your class in advance, per-

haps when you give the assignment or conduct a

GRADING CONSTRUCTED

review for the test. Your students need to know and

RESPONSES AND PAPERS

understand the criteria on which you will evaluate

their work.

Grading answers to constructed response questions

Atomistic grading takes a great deal of time be-

requires considerable thought and strategy to ensure

cause it requires attention to minute detail and

accuracy and consistency within reasonable time

because most instructors feel obligated to explain

frames. You can choose from three popular grading

what is wrong or missing on each student’s work. It

methods (Ory & Ryan, 1993; Rodgers, 1995;

may be more efficient to show students a copy of the

Stevens & Levi, 2005; Suskie, 2004; Walvoord & key when returning the test or paper. While atomistic Anderson, 1998): atomistic, holistic, and analytical

grading seems highly objective, it still invites grading grading.

protests and “point-mongering,” especially for partial credit. It often involves hair-splitting the total point Atomistic Grading

value for a question into fractions for flawed answers.

This grading technique follows a key. To develop one, If an instructor could be totally consistent in hair-you first list the components of an ideal response or splitting points, students might not try to argue for a paper, then allocate point values among the compo-point or two more. But student answers are unique,

nents. As you read a student’s work, you mentally

and no key can cover every possible imperfection. In

check off the components on your list or write the

addition, it is difficult to remember precisely how one number of points earned next to the component on

graded a similarly but not identically flawed response the student’s work. You typically give partial credit to twenty or thirty papers ago. Consistency across

an incomplete or partially correct answer. Then you

multiple graders can also be difficult to maintain.

total the point values for the grade. This approach

Perhaps a more serious weakness in atomistic grading

helps inexperienced instructors become accustomed

is its rigidity when applied to essays and assignments to the quality range of student work and the grading

that require higher-level thinking and have multiple

process.

respectable answers. The key can quickly become

This method is content focused and serves well

unruly if you try to lay out standards for grading

for grading tests and assignments that require only

every possible acceptable response, and it may not

knowledge or low-level comprehension and have

include all such responses.

one correct response. It can also be used with criteria that have fairly clear standards of right and wrong:

Holistic Grading

trueness to specified format, organization, quality of Over the years, this method has been called global

data or evidence, logic of reasoning, style (sentence grading and single impression scoring. As the name

structure, word choice, and tone), and mechanics

implies, an instructor grades a student-constructed

(grammar, punctuation, and spelling). You can easily

response on her overall evaluation of its quality. The keep track of four or five dimensions and, if you

technique is relatively quick, efficient, reliable, and wish, give each a different point value or weight—for fair when backed by instructor experience, practice,

example, twenty points for content, fifteen for

and familiarity with the student performance range

organization, ten for style, and five for mechanics,

at the institution. In addition, it easily accommodates

Grading Summative Assessments

305

essays and assignments that demand higher-order

Your relevant assessment criteria will vary ac-

thinking and have multiple respectable responses.

cording to your discipline, the course level, the nature With inductive holistic grading, which is

of your material, and the task you are assigning. Here suitable for small classes, you read quickly through

are just some of the many possible options:

all the responses or papers, rank each above or

•

Satisfying the assignment, following directions

below the ones you have already read, from best to

(particularly salient for first-year students)

worst, and then group them for assigning grades.

•

Recall of facts, figures, definitions, equations, or

Finally, you write up descriptions of the quality of

text material

each group and give them to students when you

•

Proper use of technical terminology

return their work. To personalize the feedback,

•

Demonstration of accurate understanding of the

you can add comments to each student’s sheet or

materials and texts

highlight the most applicable parts of the appropriate

•

Proper references to texts and other sources

description. While the descriptions are customized to

•

Organization, conformity to the required organiz-

the student products, this schema presents a couple

ing framework of format

of problems. Because it relies on the instructor’s

•

Precision of measurement, quality of data

comparative evaluations of students’ responses and

•

Specification of limits, qualifications to results, and papers, it contains an element of norm-referenced

conclusions

grading (curving). Moreover, students cannot know

•

Clarity of expression or explanations

in advance the dimensions on which their instructor

•

Conciseness, parsimony

will assess their work.

•

Strength or tightness of arguments (internal con-

With deductive holistic, grading, which is one

sistency, evidence, and logic)

suitable for any size class, students do know in ad-

•

Mechanics (spelling, grammar, and punctuation)

vance and in some detail how their work will be

•

Writing style, as suitable to the discipline and as-

evaluated. At the same time you compose the writing

signment

assignment or essay question, you decide the four or

•

Creativity of thought, design, or solution

five dimensions on which you will assess the student

After choosing the criteria of interest, you then

product. Four or five criteria are a reasonable number write out descriptions of what the student product

to explain to your students and to remember while

will look like at the different levels of quality. If you you are grading. Furthermore, your students cannot

are assigning letter grades, you will describe the quali-do their best on more than a handful of dimensions

ties of A, B, C, D, and F work on the dimensions you

at one time. We carry around in our heads twenty

selected for the assignment or essay. If you are allocat-or more criteria on which we judge scholarly work,

ing points, you will describe the work for each point all of which come out when we read a journal ar-or range of points. You might link words to the letter ticle or book in our discipline. But students cannot

grades or point ranges, such as exemplary, competent, work on so many in one assignment or essay; they

developing, and unacceptable. The document you gen-don’t even know what all these criteria are. Besides, erate is called a rubric, defined as an assessment and it is unfair to them to critique their novice efforts on grading tool that lays out specific expectations for an the full array of professional dimensions, even if we essay or assignment (writing, speaking, multimedia,

don’t expect high performance. So select just a few as and so on) and describes each level of performance

the most important skills for students to demonstrate quality on selected criteria. In holistic grading, these in any given piece of work, and forget the rest. You

descriptions take the form of paragraphs in which

can focus on other dimensions in other assignments

each sentence typically addresses a different dimension and essays.

in the rubric.

306

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

An example should clarify. Let’s say our as-

clear position or to use the rest of the essay to

signment is to write a classic five-paragraph essay

bring evidence from the readings to support it. It

arguing in favor of norm-referenced grading or

demonstrates little understanding or knowledge

criterion-referenced grading, drawing on several

of the readings. In addition, it draws little relevant readings on the topic. Let’s assume our rubric focuses evidence from them. The frequent errors in

on satisfying the assignment (with an emphasis on

spelling, punctuation, and grammar are distracting

following the classic five-paragraph essay format),

or render the essay incomprehensible in places.

demonstrating an accurate understanding of the

•

An F essay fails to address the assignment in topic

readings, backing one’s argument with evidence from

or format, or the frequent errors in spelling,

the readings, and mechanics. The holistic rubric

punctuation, and grammar render the essay

would look like this:

incomprehensible, or it is not turned in.

•

An A essay strictly follows the classic five-

Distribute copies of these performance descrip-

paragraph essay format, stating the thesis (position) tions to your students along with the assignment

in the first paragraph, providing evidence in each

directions or review sheet (preferably a test blueprint, of the next three paragraphs, and concluding with

as described in Chapter Thirty), and explain them

a summary or synthesis. It consistently makes

with examples. This way students will know to con-

appropriate and accurate references to the read-

centrate on the dimensions that are most important

ings. It also provides all the evidence available in

to you and will understand the quality of work you

the readings to support its argument. Finally, it

expect. To save paper and increase the odds that they contains no more than two spelling, punctuation,

will study your rubric again, you might ask them to

or grammatical errors.

attach the document to the product they hand in. (Of

•

A B essay follows the classic five-paragraph essay

course, this does not apply to electronic turn-ins.)

format with no more than one minor deviation.

Then you need not hand back another copy with

While generally accurate in referring to readings,

their work.

it shows a thin, incomplete, or shaky understand-

When you grade the essays or papers, you

ing of some readings in a couple of places. It also

decide which performance description best fits the

misses some parts of the readings that would lend

work and write that grade on the paper or essay. That evidence to the argument. It contains no more

is really all you have to do, and this can reduce your than several spelling, punctuation, or grammatical

grading time to a fraction of what atomistic grading

errors.

requires. The rubric explains the reasons for the

•

A C essay breaks significantly from the classic

grade, although you should write personal comments

five-paragraph

essay

format—perhaps

failing

as well, as time permits.

to state a clear position in the first paragraph,

The literature offers examples of holistic rubrics

mixing arguments across paragraphs, or closing

written in paragraphs for many types of assignments:

with a new argument or information. While it

letters (Montgomery, 2002); portfolios (Stevens & refers to the readings, it demonstrates a spotty

Levi, 2005); oral presentations, class participation, and or superficial understanding of them. It also

journals (Baughin, Brod, & Page, 2002); essay tests misses opportunities to use them for evidence.

and Web page designs (Brookhart, 1999); and math-

It contains quite a few spelling, punctuation, or

ematical problem solving (Baughin, Brod, & Page,

grammatical errors, though not enough to make

2002; Benander, Denton, Page, & Skinner, 2000;

parts of it incomprehensible.

Montgomery, 2002). As these models demonstrate,

•

A D essay does not follow the classic five-

it is important not to abbreviate the descriptions of paragraph essay format—failing either to state a

the B, C, and D products because students are likely

Grading Summative Assessments

307

to focus only on the description of their own grade.

all the criteria to derive an overall grade. (Because However, the description of F work may be briefer

you are working across dimensions, a point system

because such serious shortcomings often transcend

may be easier.) This grading method certainly

the rubric.

requires you to write more descriptions than does

This holistic approach shortchanges students

the holistic method—as many as the number of

in one way, however: although the rubric provides

performance levels times the number of criteria—and

an overall rationale for each grade, it does not

you may find yourself writing more extensive or

furnish much feedback on the specific dimensions.

specific descriptions. However, these furnish your

After all, it is quite possible, using the example

students more detailed instructions, expectations,

above, that a student’s paper might contain ele-

and feedback as well as clearer justification for your ments of two, three, or even more performance

assessment.

levels—for example, following the organizational

While you can write the descriptions in full

format perfectly but demonstrating a poor un-

sentences and even paragraphs, you can also use more

derstanding and use of the readings throughout

succinct phrases. You can also display the rubric in

and containing a moderate number of mechanical

an easy-to-read matrix or table for clarity, listing the errors. In this case, a holistic description is of little assessment dimensions down the left side of the page

help to you or the student, especially as formative

to define rows and the levels of performance, such as feedback, and rarely does it incorporate strategies

possible numbers of points or letter grades, across the for improvement. Of course, you can always write

top to create columns. The cells contain your descrip-personalized comments on each student’s work and

tions of the performance quality on each dimension.

underline or highlight the salient qualities in the

For purposes of illustration, let’s return to that essay performance quality descriptions. But then you may

assignment arguing in favor of norm-referenced grad-

sacrifice much of the efficiency and time-saving

ing or criterion-referenced grading and transform

advantages of holistic grading. As a result, many

the holistic rubric shown above into an analytical

instructors favor a synthetic approach that combines

one (Table 31.1). (Only holistic rubrics with well-

some of the specificity of atomistic grading with

defined, consistent dimensions easily convert into an the efficiency and professional judgment involved in

analytical version.)

the deductive holistic method.

When you use your rubric to grade, first test it

out on three or four pieces of student work. While

you are ethically bound not to make substantive

Analytical Grading: The Effective

changes, you may tweak it if needed. As you read a

Synthesis of Atomistic and Holistic

student product, mark (underline, highlight, check,

This grading technique follows the procedures of

star, or circle) the applicable phrases in the descrip-deductive holistic grading—focusing on four or five

tions on the student’s copy of the rubric. This grading assessment criteria, writing descriptions for each

method accommodates the wide differences in a

performance level, and providing students with the

student’s performance across criteria. Then either

rubric in advance—and shares the advantage of

calculate the point total or letter grade or eyeball it speed and efficiency. But rather than writing an

from the distribution of your markings, and write

overall description of the student product for each

that in a discrete place on the student work. Add your performance level, you write a brief description for

personalized comments on the work or the rubric

each performance level on each criterion, and you

only as your time permits. If you have composed a

assess the product not overall but independently on

good rubric, you should not have much more to say.

each criterion. Then you either total or average

Finally, return the work with the student’s copy of

the points gained or the letter grades earned across

the rubric.

308

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Table 31.1

Analytical Grading Rubric for a Hypothetical Essay Assignment Grade Criteria

A

B

C

D

F

Format

Follows the classic

Follows the classic

Breaks

Does not follow

Fails to address the

five-paragraph

five-paragraph

significantly

the classic

assignment in

essay format

essay format

from the classic

five-paragraph

topic or format,

strictly, stating

with no more

five-paragraph

essay

or frequent

the thesis

than one minor

essay

format—failing

errors in

(position) in the

deviation

format—failing

either to state a

spelling,

first paragraph,

to state a clear

clear position or

punctuation,

providing

position in the

to use the rest

and grammar

evidence in

first paragraph,

of essay to bring

render the essay

each of the next

mixing

evidence from

incomprehensi-

three

arguments

the readings to

ble, or not

paragraphs, and

across

support it

turned in

concluding

paragraphs, or

with a summary

closing with a

or synthesis

new argument

or information

Command of

Consistently

Generally accurate

Refers to the

Demonstrates little

readings

makes

in referring to

readings but

understanding

appropriate and

readings, but

demonstrates a

or knowledge

accurate

shows a thin,

spotty or

of the readings

references to

incomplete, or

superficial

the readings

shaky

understanding

understanding

of them

of some

readings in a

couple of places

Evidence from

Provides all the

Provides evidence

Misses

Draws little

readings

evidence

available in the

opportunities to

relevant

available in the

readings, but

use the readings

evidence from

readings to

misses some

for evidence

the readings

support its

parts that would

argument

lend evidence

to the argument

Mechanics

No more than

No more than

Quite a few

Frequent errors in

two spelling,

several spelling,

spelling,

spelling,

punctuation, or

punctuation, or

punctuation, or

punctuation,

grammatical

grammatical

grammatical

and grammar

errors

errors

errors, though

that are

not enough to

distracting or

make parts of it

render the essay

incompre-

incomprehensi-

hensible

ble in

places

Grading Summative Assessments

309

With a little experience, you will be able to

•

How well does the student understand the prob-

develop rubrics quickly and at the same time that you lem, and how properly does she address it?

design an assignment or write an essay test question.

•

How clearly does she state the hypothesis?

For the latter use, you can prepare a generic rubric

•

How does she present the results? Does the pre-

that doesn’t give away the question. When students

sentation follow the instructions? Are all the results can work on an assignment or study for a test with

included?

the rubric in front of them, they are less likely to

•

How clear are the student’s logic and organization?

explain away a poor performance with, “I didn’t

•

How strong are her analytical skills in the results

know what he wanted.” You will find more examples

and discussion?

of analytical rubrics in matrix/table form than any

•

How solid is her grasp of the scientific method?

other kind, and models are available for every

In lower-level science courses, you can help

grading purpose. Look in the assessment literature

your students write better lab reports by pro-

(for example, Baughin et al., 2002; Brookhart, 1999;

viding them with samples of quality scientific

Leahy, 2002; Montgomery, 2002; Rodgers, 1995;

writing—perhaps model lab reports from other

Stevens & Levi, 2005; Suskie, 2004; Walvoord & courses—to familiarize them with the proper format

Anderson, 1998) and on dedicated websites, such

and content. You can also have them organize

as RubiStar (http://rubistar.4teachers.org), Teach-

their reports with an outline or flowchart and

nology (www.teach-nology.com/web tools/rubrics),

practice-write the various sections.

iRubric (www.rcampus.com/rubricshellc.cfm?mode

Another excellent way to help your students

=gallery&sms=home&srcgoogle&gclid=CNSCsu3P

produce good reports is to give them the grading

mZMCFQv sgodPBO xA),

and

Tech4Learning

rubric in advance. Rodgers (1995) developed a

(http://myt4l.com/index.php?v = pl&page ac =view

detailed analytical rubric, presented in an easy-

&type=tools&tool=rubricmaker). All of these sites to-read matrix, to grade his students’ chemistry

feature not just models but also rubric generators,

lab reports. His rubric has a daunting twenty-one

allowing you to create your own for specific assign-

assessment dimensions, but they fall within four

ments. For many types of assignments, RubiStar, for

more general criteria—focus, appearance, content,

instance, offers a drop-down menu of appropriate cri-

and structure—and have only three levels of point

teria to choose from. When you select a dimension,

allocations: 2, 4, and 6.

it displays descriptions of four quality levels, which For example, under “focus,” Rodgers (1995,

you can then edit to your needs. While designed

p. 21) has nine dimensions:

primarily for and by K–12 teachers, most of the

models and generated rubrics apply to college-level

1. Understanding experimental objectives

work with little or no modification. The next chapter 2. Abstract describes what was done and major

contains another example of an analytical rubric, and results

this is one you can use to guide you in writing a

3. Unnecessary statements or observations in the pro-

statement of your teaching philosophy.

cedure

4. Depth of introduction

5. Tone

GRADING LAB REPORTS

6. Suggestions for improvement, further study in

conclusions

While this is a specialized kind of grading for a spe-7. Effort to relate the experiment to other known

cialized kind of writing, all guidelines for grading

chemical principles

constructed responses still apply. The questions below 8. Shows detailed understanding of scientific method

are also important to take into consideration across all 9. Student distinguishes between a theory and

lab reports:

a proof

310

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

This many dimensions seems high, but many of

Indeed, grading mechanics this way is a lost

the cells have only one- or two-word descriptors—for

cause. Once you return an essay test or written

dimension 1, “very clear,” “demonstrated,” or “un-

assignment with a grade on it, students will read the sophisticated”; for dimension 7, “clear,” “vague,” or rubric description associated with their grade and

“none”; for dimension 9, “yes,” “yes,” or “no.” Even

your written comments but will give scant attention

when the descriptor is considerably longer, it is very to your copyediting, even if their poor mechanics

easy to simply check, circle, or highlight the most

cost them points. Most of our scrawls make little

appropriate option. At the end, the grader totals the sense to them. Besides, the work already has a grade, points accumulated across all twenty-one dimensions

so what’s the point?

by calculating or eyeballing.

Happily, you can grade mechanics, and do it in a

Rodgers (1995) recorded how long it took to

fraction of the time it takes to copyedit the work, and grade a lab report using his old atomistic method

ensure that students learn some grammar, spelling,

versus his new method. He timed both himself and

punctuation, and sentence structure rules along the

his trained teaching assistants. The results were quite way and use what they learn in their subsequent writ-startling. His previous grading technique required fif-ing. When you make an assignment, tell students that

teen to twenty minutes per report, while the new

you will be grading their mechanics by choosing one

one took only three and a half minutes (for him) to

page from their work—but you will not tell them

four minutes (for his teaching assistants) per report. In which page in advance—to note their mechanical er-other words, atomistic grading took four to five times rors. You determine how many errors on the page

longer than analytical. Rodgers was pleased with the

will affect the grade in what ways and state that in

reliability and overall grading results.

your rubric—for example, up to five errors merit

twenty points (total possible) for mechanics, five to ten errors merit fifteen points, ten to fifteen errors HOW TO GRADE MECHANICS

merit ten points, fifteen to twenty errors merit five QUICKLY WHILE ENSURING

points, and more than twenty errors merit no points.

STUDENTS LEARN THEM

On that page, you will be placing a check mark at the end of a line for every grammar, spelling, punctua-With any grading method involving multiple cri-

tion, and sentence structure error in that line without teria, be careful to distinguish among your various

identifying what the error is or correcting it.

evaluative dimensions. For example, try not to let

After returning the graded work to your

a poor grammatical construction devalue a good

students, make the required follow-up assignment of

idea—assuming, of course, you can decipher the

identifying and correcting all the mechanical errors

idea despite the construction. Still, because poor

(or as many as students can) they have made on that

mechanics can hide a good idea, you should con-

page to gain back a portion of the points they lost.

sider assessing your students’ spelling, grammar,

They will get credit only for accurate corrections.

punctuation, sentence structure, and word choice

Refer them to one or more English language or writ-

as a separate dimension. Many instructors decide to

ing handbooks. (The Web has a variety of free ones,

avoid grading mechanics, even though they bemoan

including The Writing Handbook at www.lz95.org their students’ writing—or perhaps because they do.

/LZHS/wcenter/Handbook.pdf, World-English at

Those who have tried assessing writing will tell you

www.world-english.org/writing.htm, and the Uni-

that it is a lost cause, that they spent laborious hours versity of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center’s

copyediting their students’ work and their students

Writer’s

Handbook

at

http://writing.wisc.edu

neither looked carefully at their corrections nor

/Handbook.) To motivate students to get the me-

improved their writing.

chanics right the first time, give them only partial

Grading Summative Assessments

311

credit for each correction, certainly no more than

specific assignments during the term for a specific

half the value of the points they lost. Instruct them to final grade. Aside from the instructor’s logistic chal-make their corrections on the actual page of the paper lenge of monitoring a different set of requirements

in a different color ink (or pencil) from black and the for each student, the system resulted in too many A’s color you used for grading. Give them three to four

being given for subpar work and fell into disrepute.

days to complete this follow-up assignment. They will However, a revised version of contract grading,

learn their mistakes and how to correct them through

one more appropriately called “outcome-based

the process of discovery. When you collect these

grading,” that overcomes the pitfalls of the original corrected pages, you need only look at the number

has emerged and has been successfully adopted

of check marks you made in the margin and the cor-

by faculty across the disciplines (Codde, 1996; K.

rections made. Moreover, students will remember the

Kegley, personal communication, February 17, 2005;

errors they identified, researched, and corrected and Leff, n.d.; Weimer, 2002). In this new version, the

will not want to repeat the same errors again. If on

instructor lays out the terms by which the students

the average they learn just a dozen new punctuation,

will earn grades, which promotes high standards,

grammar, and sentence structure rules, that is a dozen and assigns grades according to how well students

rules they otherwise would not learn at all.

fulfill certain work requirements, as specified in the In the next writing assignment, grade on me-syllabus or in assignment directions. In operational

chanics the same way, selecting a different page for

terms, students receive grades based on the number

noting mechanical errors. Chances are that you will

of assignments and often on the specific assignments

see fewer errors than before and, for each student,

they complete at a satisfactory level by given due

different ones from those you marked before. This

dates. That is, they earn higher grades by jumping

time students will learn a few more rules for good

more hurdles, presumably showing evidence of more

writing. With just a few writing assignments and a

learning, or jumping higher hurdles, presumably

modest amount of your time, your students will radi-

showing evidence of more advanced learning, or

cally improve their writing.

jumping both more and higher hurdles. While

Identify students who are not native English

students must aim for a specific grade to decide how

speakers, and be more lenient in grading their work.

much and which work they will complete, they wind

Note only the more important errors rather than

up with the final grade they earn during the term.

overwhelm them. If advisable, refer them to your

What about students who try to jump a hurdle

institution’s writing or academic assistance center

but for one reason or another fail to solve the prob-

for individual help. In fact, refer any student with a lem, complete the assignment, or satisfy the require-serious writing problem to such a center. Every col-

ments? In this case, they receive no credit for that hur-lege and university has a range of specialized campus dle. Because of the dire consequences of substandard

resources that can support you and your students;

work, outcome-based grading requires you to define

they are well worth exploring (see Appendix).

exactly what jumping a hurdle means. That is, you

must write very specific assignment directions and

an up-or-down, one-level rubric for what acceptable

OUTCOME-BASED GRADING

work entails—perhaps obtaining the correct answer

to a problem (and showing one’s work), answering a

Back in the 1970s and 1980s, a few progressive

list of questions, completing specific sections, writing faculty

experimented

with

a

student-centered

so many words or pages, or satisfying whatever cri-

alternative to traditional grading called “contract

teria will guide students to meet your expectations.

grading.” At the beginning of the course, students

You might even recommend how many hours stu-

individually contracted or committed to complete

dents should put into a given assignment. Of course,

312

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

you may set the bar as high as you believe that your

assignment (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). No wonder

students can reach, which can mean raising it—that

most students prefer outcome-based to traditional

is, for example, making what you consider B work in

grading once they experience it.

a traditionally graded course “acceptable,” rather than C work. If you will grade an assignment on how advanced the level of learning a student demonstrates,

RETURNING STUDENTS’ WORK

you must convey exactly what you mean by “more

advanced”—perhaps higher-order cognitive skills in

To protect students’ privacy, return their work in any Bloom’s (1956) hierarchy, or higher-stage thinking in order except grading rank, and record points and

Perry’s (1968) schema of undergraduate development,

grades inside the test or paper—never where they

or higher-step skills in Wolcott’s (2006) framework of can be seen. Under the provisions of the Buckley

critical thinking.

Amendment (the Family Educational Rights and

This type of grading may sound rigid and harsh,

Privacy Act), it is illegal to publicly display scores or but it need not be. When students turn in unaccept-grades with any identifying information, including

able work for the first assignment, you can return

entire or partial social security numbers.

it to accustom students to this new grading system.

Grade and return tests and assignments as

K. Kegley (personal communication, February 17,

promptly as you can; students cannot learn from

2005) recommends building in flexibility with a token your feedback on a piece of work they have long

system. Starting the course with three tokens, each

forgotten. Allow class time for review, questions,

student can use one to revise and resubmit an

and problem-solving exercises so students can learn

unacceptable assignment, to be absent from class

what they did not the first time. It is best not

without penalty, or to obtain a one-day emergency

to proceed to new material until students assure

extension. She also offers rewards for still having

you that they understand what they did wrong.

tokens at the end of the term, such as exempting the

Some instructors give a statistical grading summary

final exam or adding points to course grade.

showing the distribution of points, the class mean and Enhanced with some flexibility, outcome-based

median, the standard deviation, and the cut-off lines grading offers some advantages over traditional

for grades (already built into the criterion-referenced grading (Codde, 1996; Hiller & Hietapelto, 2001;

system). No doubt these data increase students’ inter-K.

Kegley, personal

communication, February

est in elementary statistics, but they also encourage 17, 2005; Leff, n.d.; Warrington, Hietapelto, &

“point mongering” around the cut-off lines.

Joyce, 2003; Weimer, 2002). Being menu driven

This brings us to the unpleasant topic of grade

and learner centered, students have choices about

disputes. No matter how carefully you grade, a few

whether to complete or not to complete at least

students will be dissatisfied with their scores. The

some assignments (and tests) or how much effort to

holistic and analytical grading methods discourage

allocate to an assignment. Therefore, they are more

(but do not prevent) such challenges because, unlike

likely to see their grade as their own responsibility, atomistic grading, they rely heavily on professional

not as a punitive faculty action or a capricious

judgment, which is too sophisticated for most

whim of the fates. This view should increase their

students to debate against. Rule number one is never

sense of internal locus of control as well as their

to discuss a grade with an emotional student. Rather, motivation because feelings of volition, choice,

require him to cool off and to submit his case for a

and self-determination motivate people to pursue

grade change formally in writing (not by email) with

a goal (Bandura, 1997; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).

justifications citing specific material in the readings Furthermore, if the requirements for success are clear or your lectures, within a time limit of forty-eight

to students, they should feel less anxious about their to seventy-two hours. Students who cannot make a

grade, more oriented to learning, and freer to take

case in two or three days probably do not have one.

risks and be creative within the parameters of the

Grading Summative Assessments

313

Alternatively, agree to regrade the entire test or paper, in class or paying tuition. In this case, we can force our which means you may find a grading error that does

standards, but have we gained converts? Another area

not work in the student’s favor. Or agree to regrade

of disagreement is writing standards. Students who in the item in question, but should you find no cause

our view write poorly may argue that they have al-

for a point change, you will subtract the number of

ways written this way and have gotten good grades

points disputed. However you decide to respond to

and been understood by their friends. We can tell

grade challenges, clearly state your policy in your

them that the workplace will expect a writing style

syllabus and stick to it.

closer to our criteria, but will they believe us? They may also oppose our scientific perspectives on religious grounds, pitting our material against their years HELPING STUDENTS USE YOUR

of socialization. Rather than challenging their beliefs, FEEDBACK TO IMPROVE

we may be able to persuade them to accept and com-

partmentalize science as a separate worldview.

Two other dynamics may explain why our feed-

The purpose of feedback is to help the recipient per-

back fails (Falkenberg, 1996). First, a student may

form some skill better, yet it does not always succeed.

not correctly perceive our performance standards. For The section on grading mechanics describes a two-example, we may counsel a student that he frequently

stage assessment procedure that builds in motivation

writes sentence fragments, but if he continues to write for students to use your feedback. Unless you follow

them, he may not yet understand what a sentence

up an assignment with another one that makes your

fragment is. We can overcome this barrier by clarify-

students examine and learn from their errors, you

ing our standards in different words, providing more

should not assume that they will use your feedback

to improve their performance next time. So consider

models, or tutoring the student individually. Second, having them write a summary of the feedback con-a student may not correctly evaluate her performance

tained in your rubric and comments, along with an

against our standards, and one of several reasons may explanation of how they will use it to improve their

be behind it. If it is because of simple error, all we next assignment or essay test. This strategy has yielded need do is to supply additional feedback that gives

good results and will make the energy you put into

new information or an alternative interpretation. But furnishing feedback worthwhile (Doyle, 2008).

the block may represent ingrained error—that is, she

Even with such a follow-up assignment, other

has been performing the skill wrong for so long that it factors can undermine the value and impact of our

feels right to her. Even so, we can probably reach her feedback (Falkenberg, 1996). For whatever reason, a

by furnishing more models and tutoring. However, if

student may not be capable of meeting the higher

the student is too immature to accept criticism or out standards our feedback sets as a goal. If so, all the of touch with reality, there is really nothing we can do feedback in the world will fail. A second possibility (Falkenberg, 1996). This may explain the students we

is that a student may not agree with our performance

have known who have cut classes, turned in failing

standards, in which case it falls on us to change her work, and refused our help.

mind. But can we? For instance, faculty and students

When we can intervene, we should enlist other

have quite different definitions of cheating and pla-

students to help us. Often they furnish the additional giarism and the stage at which they become unethical

clarification, information, interpretation, models, and (see Chapter Eight). Thus far, we have not found suc-even tutoring, especially when they work in small

cessful ways to convince students to adopt our values.

groups to provide peer feedback on their drafts of as-Many students also believe that we should grade them

signments. We should also refer students to campus

not just on performance but also on effort, and some

resources such as the writing or the academic assis-

maintain they are entitled to an A just for showing up tance center.

314

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

THE REAL MEANING AND LIMITS

mandated shorthand used to screen, sanction, moti-

OF GRADES

vate, and reward—with mixed results. What grades

cannot do is to inspire students to want to learn. That admirable task is ours, and our success depends on

In the best of all possible worlds, we would not give our teaching methods and moves, our motivational

grades at all. Rather we would furnish our students

strategies, our enthusiasm, our rapport with students, with individual feedback on how to improve their

and other qualities and behaviors that we examine in

work. So we should keep grades in perspective

the next and final chapter.

and see them for what they are: an institutionally

C H A P T E R 32

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching

Effectiveness

Over the past couple of decades, teaching DEFININGANDMEASURING

effectiveness has come to weigh more heavily

TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

in the faculty review process, including tenure

and promotion decisions, in North American colleges

Teaching effectiveness is an instructor’s degree of suc-and universities. With this trend has come an increas-cess in facilitating student learning. In general, the ing emphasis on student ratings and the development

more material and skills students learn, the higher the of additional ways to document teaching success. This cognitive, affective, ethical, social, and psychomotor chapter summarizes the major research findings on

levels at which they learn it, and the better they can the validity and reliability of student ratings, which communicate what they have learned, the more ef-almost all institutions use to measure teaching

fective an instructor’s teaching is. More specifically, effectiveness, and suggests ways that you can improve the better the students achieve an instructor’s learning outcomes and the more students who do so, the more

yours. Then it presents guidelines for writing your

effective her teaching is.

teaching philosophy and documenting your teaching

It is simple enough to propose this formal defi-

effectiveness in teaching and course portfolios.

nition, but how are we to measure student learning?

Finally, it reviews two systems for evaluating teaching While we do this in our tests and assignments, we

effectiveness in formal faculty reviews, both of which rarely use standardized assessment instruments across take more than student ratings into account. As

different sections and terms of the same course—and

it turns out, evaluating teaching turns out to be

for good reason. First, some faculty would consider

more complex than judging the merits of a faculty

being required to do so as impinging on their aca-

member’s research or service. So let’s begin by

demic freedom and autonomy as we currently define

looking at how it is defined and measured.

them. Second, it would tempt instructors to teach to

315

316

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

the test—a good consequence only if the tests validly ratings, which has generally used well-tested ques-assessed all of their student learning outcomes. But

tionnaires, applies at many institutions.

typically these instruments are too objective and fact Moreover, what relationships do exist between

heavy to test all the cognitive, affective, ethical, social, direct measures of student learning and student ratings and psychomotor skills that so many courses aim to

(satisfaction) are grounded largely in research that was help students develop. Third, no single instruments

conducted in the 1970s and 1980s (Cashin, 1988;

can capture the complexity of the learning process.

Cohen, 1981; Feldman, 1989). Since then, the

The instructor is only one among many factors that

college student population has markedly changed on

affect the depth and breadth of student learning in

many dimensions: demographics, values, attitudes,

a given course. Beyond her influence are the stu-

motivations, aspirations, percentage employed, prepa-

dent’s intelligence, energy level, interest, attitudes toration for college, and reasons for attending college.

ward work, out-of-class commitments, family back-

Certainly such profound shifts should have an impact

ground, and previous schooling (Arreola, 2007). A

on students’ assessment of the instructors, perhaps

final reason is that few disciplines have developed stan-for the more critical. If we could replicate the best dardized assessment tests of what students should gain of the many “old” studies with today’s students,

from a given course. Even the notable exceptions,

our conclusions on the merits of student evaluations

physics and economics, have such instruments only

would stand on much firmer grounds. All this is to

for their lowest-level courses

say that extrapolating yesterday’s research findings

But because institutions eschew standardized

to today involves a leap of faith.

assessments, they cannot directly measure teaching

effectiveness or directly compare the relative ef-

How Valid Are Student Ratings?

fectiveness of different instructors. Rather, most of them rely heavily on student ratings and written

To assess validity means to find out how well we are comments, which together constitute “students’

measuring what we intend to measure. Two concerns

evaluations” about the course and the instructor.

are paramount in determining the validity of student

Numerical ratings in particular permit quick and

ratings: how effectively they serve as an indicator of easy analysis and comparison. But how justified are

student learning or achievement and what biases may

institutions in using student ratings as a surrogate

reduce that effectiveness. The closer the relationship for student learning? The next section tackles this

is between student ratings and learning, and the fewer question.

and weaker the biases in ratings, the more valid rat-

ings are and the better they serve as proxies for direct measures of learning.

STUDENT EVALUATIONS

A

vast

literature

on

the

evaluation

of

teaching—research with which few instructors are

Student evaluations directly tap students’ perceptions familiar—supports the claim that student ratings (not and affective reactions to an instructor and a course, necessarily the written comments) are sufficiently

specifically their satisfaction with them. (This variable valid to be used in faculty reviews. This assumes, of may be of greater interest than learning to administra-course, that an institution is using a statistically solid tors who are striving for customer satisfaction.) Ob-rating instrument tested for validity and reliability, viously satisfaction is not the same as learning, even which is frequently not the case (Arreola, 2007;

if they are related. In addition, the forms that collect Nuhfer, 2003). The evidence in favor of student

these data often have flawed, homespun items with

ratings is found in two meta-analyses conducted by

questionable validity and reliability (Nuhfer, 2003).

Cohen (1981) and Feldman (1989). Synthesizing the

So we don’t know how well the research on student

results of dozens of rigorous studies, both reported

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

317

that student achievement on an external exam

characterize an engaging lecturer and a competent

(a direct measure of learning) correlates decently

professional public speaker (see Chapter Twelve).

with student ratings of specific facets of teaching

Such qualities build trust with the audience and

effectiveness (mean r = .57 to .38)—in particular, the attract and maintain its attention. In addition, an

instructor’s ability to explain clearly, his good use of instructor’s stimulation of student interest in the

class time, preparation, course organization, students’

course and subject matter, which often stems from

perceived learning gains, instructor’s stimulation of his enthusiasm and his sensitivity to and concern with interest in the subject, and his ability to motivate

class progress, which often accompanies warmth,

students to do their best. Learning and the overall

correlates with student learning, though not strongly (also called “global”) ratings of instructor effectiveness (Feldman, 1989, 1998a, 1998b). On balance, then,

and the course also correlated moderately ( r =

instructor enthusiasm/expressiveness, warmth, and

.44 and .47, respectively; Cohen, 1981). Instructor

self-esteem are more components of effective

friendliness, personality, rapport, and the like related teaching than they are interference.

more weakly to achievement ( r = .31; Cohen, 1981).

Let’s examine another reputed bias in student

Bear in mind that these correlations are moderate at

ratings. Many instructors believe that grading more

best and are derived from large data sets. You cannot leniently raises their ratings, and some respectable reuse them to predict how much a class has learned

search backs up their claim (Greenwald & Gillmore, from only the instructor’s student ratings. Therefore, 1997; Johnson, 2003). The correlation between

while over many faculty and classes, higher ratings

grades (actual or expected) and overall student

result in more learning, or vice versa, student ratings ratings, while not strong, varies somewhat across

are a poor stand-in for learning in any one class.

studies ( r = .33 in Greenwald & Gillmore, 1997; r =

Recent research has uncovered one source

.10 to .30, according to Feldman, 1998b). Whatever

of interference between learning and ratings. A

the size of the relationship, we have no statistically number of students—and that’s all it takes to af-respectable method to draw a definitive conclusion

fect ratings—object to active learning strategies,

about what is apparently causing the increase in

student-centered courses, and an emphasis on critical ratings on either the individual or the class level. Is it thinking, and they accordingly penalize instructors

grades, or is it one or more variables closely associated on the evaluation forms (Edens, 2000; Lieux, 1996;

Rhem, 2006; Thorn, 2003; Weimer, 2002).

with grades? Clearly grades and learning are linked.

Biases affect validity, but some of the variables

We also know certain precursors to both greater

that correlate most strongly with ratings, those

learning and higher grades, such as students’ prior

characterizing the instructor’s persona, may or may

interest in the subject matter, motivation to learn, and not be biases. As you may recall, Chapter Seven rec-academic commitment. In fact, these precursors are

ommends projecting a certain instructor persona to

also correlated with student ratings, about as much as reduce classroom incivilities. The same persona also

instructor behaviors are. So are higher ratings due to seems to enhance ratings, and among its most

higher grades, or are they due to greater learning and potent facets are enthusiasm/expressiveness, warmth,

its precursors? If it is the latter, then ratings reflect and self-esteem (Erdle & Murray, 1986; Feldman,

what they should. In fact, all six of these variables 1986). The first two traits positively color even peer are sufficiently interrelated that we cannot isolate

assessments of an instructor’s teaching. Some scholars the independent effects of one variable on another

argue that enthusiasm constitutes a bias because it

(Abrami, Dickens, Perry, & Leventhal, 1980; Cashin, is unrelated to learning as tested by multiple-choice 1995; Howard & Maxwell, 1980, 1982).

tests (Williams & Ceci, 1997). However, enthusiasm, Running counter to the grading leniency hy-self-confidence, and warmth toward the audience

pothesis are findings, both decades old and recent,

318

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

that students give higher ratings in more challeng-

Student Characteristics

ing courses in which they have to work hard (Beyers,

1. Prior interest in the subject matter. The higher

2008; Centra, 1993; Dee, 2007; Marsh & Dunkin,

the students’ prior interest in the subject matter,

1992; Martin, Hands, Lancaster, Trytten, & Murphy, the higher their ratings of the course and the in-2008; Sixbury & Cashin, 1995). It seems then that structor.

watering down a course and its workload will not

2. Academic commitment. The more willing stu-

boost student ratings.

dents are to put noninstructor-induced effort into

What about other biases? Aleamoni (1999),

their learning—that is, the more motivated they

Cashin (1988, 1995), and Feldman (1986, 1992,

are to work—the higher their ratings of the course

1993/1998b) separate myth from reality in their com-

and the instructor.

prehensive literature reviews. First presented are the 3. Reason for taking the course. Holding course and

variables that have been found not to affect student

instructor characteristics constant, students give

ratings in a statistically significant and consistent way.

higher ratings to courses they take voluntarily

(electives) and lower ratings to those they take to

Instructor Characteristics

fulfill a requirement (for instance, general educa-

1. Gender (also see Centra & Gaubatz, 1999; Feld-

tion). These higher or lower ratings also extend

man, 1992, 1993; Nilson & Lysaker, 1996)

to the instructor. However, what is voluntary and

2. Age and experience (but d’Apollonia & Abrami,

what is not is often in the eye of the beholder.

1997, report that rank, experience, and autonomy

Given a choice of a hundred courses that satisfy

modestly bias ratings upward)

a general education requirement, does a student

3. Personality (as measured by a personality inven-

view his selection as elective or required?

tory; this is not “persona”)

4. Research productivity ( r = .12, Feldman, 1987) Course and Administrative Variables

1. Course level. Higher-level courses, especially

Student Characteristics

graduate level, tend to receive higher ratings.

1. Gender

2. Discipline. Humanities courses receive higher

2. Age

ratings than social science courses, which in turn

3. Level (freshman to senior)

receive higher ratings than science, technical,

4. Grade point average

engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses.

5. Personality

(as

measured

by

a

personality

But the research only suggests possible reasons

inventory)

for these differences. We know that humanities

instructors exhibit a broader range of teaching

Course and Administrative Variables

behaviors that are positively related to student

1. Class size

ratings (for example, interactivity, rapport with

2. Time of day the course is taught

class, making the material relevant) than do social

3. Time during the term the evaluations are col-

and natural science instructors, who focus more

lected

on structuring and pacing the subject matter

(Murray & Renaud, 1996). But other possible

But some genuine biases do exist (Aleamoni,

reasons include the greater difficulty of STEM

1999; Cashin, 1988, 1995):

courses (Johnson, 2003) and the more immediate

and obvious personal relevance of humanities and

Instructor Characteristics

social science courses.

1. Status has an impact in that regular faculty tend to 3. Student anonymity. Signed ratings are higher than

get higher ratings than teaching assistants do.

anonymous ones for obvious reasons.

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

319

4. Presence of the instructor. The instructor’s pres-

an instructor’s student ratings from one year to

ence while students are filling out the forms biases

the next.

ratings upward.

In using student ratings for personnel decisions,

5. Perceived purpose of the evaluation. Students

Cashin (1988, 1995) recommends using data from

rate more generously if they believe their ratings

multiple terms and multiple courses to obtain a more

will be used for personnel decisions than if

reliable picture of teaching effectiveness. If an instruc-they believe their ratings are only for instructor

tor teaches only one course, then consistent ratings

self-improvement.

from two terms may be sufficient. For instructors

with more responsibilities, however, ratings from two or more courses for every term taught over the past

How Reliable Are Student Ratings?

two or more years provide a better assessment. For

In assessing reliability, three criteria are very impor-fair and comprehensive instructor reviews, the ratings tant: consistency, stability, and generalizability. The of courses with fewer than fifteen students should be consistency of student ratings—that is, the agreement supplemented with other assessment material.

between raters—is quite high, increasing from mod-

erately high to very high with class size. In Cashin

How to Improve Your Student Ratings

and Perrin’s (1978) study, average item reliability in a class of ten students was .69, but it increased to .89

Start by reviewing the statistical summaries and

in a class of forty. In Sixbury and Cashin’s (1995)

student comments from your previous evaluations.

replication, the reliability figures were the same or It is best to do this with your department chair,

higher. Stability, which indicates the concurrence of a trusted colleague, or a staff member from your

ratings over time, is also high. In a longitudinal study institution’s teaching center. Look for repeated

conducted by Marsh and Overall (1979; Overall

areas of criticism—pay no attention to isolated

& Marsh, 1980), student ratings collected at the

complaints—and try to identify patterns and trends.

end of a semester were compared against ratings

Does class size, level, or subject matter seem to make collected at least one year after graduation. The

a difference? Bear in mind the biases in student

average correlation of the ratings was .83, showing a ratings and mentally correct for them. Remember

high level of stability. Finally, generalizability, defined that these questionnaires collect students’ perceptions as the concurrence of ratings for the same instructor and affective reactions, not objective reality. You

in different teaching situations, is very good. Marsh might not think you behaved a certain way (for

(1982) compared the ratings of the same instructor

example, condescending, impatient, disorganized)

teaching the same course in different semesters, the

that alienated your students, but you apparently did

same instructor teaching different courses, different or said something that gave them that impression.

instructors teaching the same course, and different

What could that be?

instructors teaching different courses. The corre-

Then consider the factors related to ratings that

lations for the same instructor-same course were

you can and cannot control. For instance, you cannot

quite high (.71) and much higher than those for the

change your discipline, the specific subjects you

same course-different instructor (.14). An instructor’s teach, the required or elective nature of your courses, effectiveness apparently crosses course boundaries

or the size of your classes. Nor can you affect your

as well, since the same instructor-different course

students’ prior interest in the subject matter, their correlation was .52 versus the much lower different

academic commitment, or their motivation to take

instructor-different course correlation of .06. More

your course. But you can make changes in the clarity

recent research (Albanese, 1991; Hativa, 1996) has

of your explanations, your use of class time, your

found higher correlations of .87 to .89 between

preparation (real and apparent), the organization of

320

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

your course (even if it is just making that organization are making some changes and not others. In fact,

more apparent to students with a graphic syllabus

you can address many of their concerns not by

and an outcomes maps), and your public speaking

changing anything but by providing your reasons for

skills (see Chapter Twelve). You can enhance your

the teaching and assessment decisions you have made.

persona by projecting more enthusiasm, energy,

Again, this book supplies plenty of research-based

relaxed self-confidence, authority, and in-command

rationales for effective choices.

leadership—qualities that will stimulate students’

interest in the material and maintain their respectful attention (see Chapters Seven and Twelve). You

PEER, ADMINISTRATIVE,

can also add warmth, empathy, and caring to your

AND SELF-EVALUATIONS

persona by learning students’ names, encouraging

their success, smiling, and exhibiting a few other

Dozen of studies conducted in the 1970s and early

simple behaviors, which will motivate students to

1980s (for example, Aleamoni, 1982; Bergman, 1980;

do their best (see Chapters Five and Seven). You

Centra, 1975, 1979; Greenwood & Ramagli, 1980)

can help students see how much they are learning

came to these conclusions about self-evaluations of

by having them reflect and write about their newly

teaching and peer and administrative evaluations based acquired or improved skills. You can explain to them

on classroom observations:

how important their evaluations are to you personally and to your institution. You can replace some major

•

Self-evaluations do not correlate much with any

tests with daily quizzes (see Chapter Twenty-Three).

other type of evaluation.

This book presents a wealth of teaching methods and

•

Self-evaluation and peer evaluations based on

moves that can improve your ratings as well as your

classroom visits are much more generous than

students’ learning. Just give a major innovation two

student ratings.

or more terms to show positive results.

•

Among peer evaluators who visit a classroom for

In addition, try to gather student feedback

observational purposes, interrater reliability (that

far enough in advance of the official evaluation

is, consensus) is low.

process to fine-tune your courses. You can write up,

•

Peer and administrative evaluations based on class-

administer, and analyze your own midterm student

room visits are so highly correlated as to be almost

evaluations, including items similar to those on your redundant.

institution’s or department’s official ratings form, as

•

All three relate very little to student learning and

well as others of concern to you. Alternatively, you

only modestly to student ratings.

can ask your teaching center to conduct a small-

group instructional diagnosis (class interview) in your The literature also consistently argues that none

classes. Research shows that soliciting early student of these types of evaluations should be used as the

feedback and having an interpretive consultation

sole teaching evaluation tool, and they should not re-with a specialist result in significantly higher student place student ratings and comments. In fact, peer and evaluations at the end of the term (Cohen, 1980).

administrative evaluations based on classroom obser-

Students seem to take the opportunity to give

vations should not be used for promotion and tenure

their instructors midterm feedback more seriously

reviews at all, unless:

than they do end-of-term teaching evaluations. After

all, they stand to benefit from the former, while

•

The observers are formally trained in classroom

the latter come too late to improve their learning

observation and the use of the evaluation form.

experience. You can pick and choose among the

•

They meet with the instructor beforehand to dis-

changes they request, explaining to them why you

cuss his teaching philosophy, preferred methods,

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

321

characteristics of the course and students, and

ratings; the reviewers will look at whatever you

learning outcomes for the course and the specific

supply. Besides, current students are in no position

class.

to judge your course content, every facet of your

•

They observe the instructor’s class at least seven or instructional design and delivery, or the longer-term eight times during the term.

impact of your teaching.

•

They schedule the classroom visits with the in-

Although submitting the documents and mate-

structor in advance.

rials described in this section cannot guarantee you a faculty position, tenure, or promotion, they do make

Some of these conditions are very difficult for

the academic reward system more responsive to teach-

busy faculty, department chairs, and deans to meet,

ing achievements (Seldin, 2004). Their use in whole

but such a professional observation program has been

or in part is gaining acceptance because they com-

developed and tested (Millis, 1992).

plement the student ratings data and fit easily into

Of course, feedback from more casual peer

current hiring and review procedures. Perhaps most

and administrative classroom observations is not

important, they motivate faculty and administrators

only harmless but potentially useful for formative

to talk about teaching, thereby promoting reflection, purposes. Peers in particular have the expertise to

innovation, and improvement.

advise on the course content, book selections, online resources, possible demonstrations and class activities, and the technical aspects of instructional design, such The Teaching Philosophy

as the syllabus and assignments. However, students are This one- to two-page single-spaced statement is of-the more relevant judges of instructional design (the ten a required part of an academic job application and completeness of the syllabus, the clarity of the course faculty review materials, including a teaching portfo-organization, and the learning effectiveness of assign-lio. It does not document your teaching effectiveness ments and activities), instructional delivery (the use as much as it proves you have reflected on your teach-and organization of class time, communication and

ing and are committed to an effective strategy. There presentation skills, the clarity of explanations, and the is no simple formula for writing a teaching philoso-degree of student activity and engagement), and their phy, but certain conventions apply. Following an essay perceived learning (the challenge of tests and assign-format with an introduction and conclusion, it is a

ments, perceived achievement of outcomes, and

personal statement incorporating both cognitive and

interest in learning more about the subject matter).

affective elements written in the first person. It also contains all or most of the facets of a philosophy: (1) a theory of how reality works—in this case, a theory of DOCUMENTING YOUR

teaching and learning; (2) an informed and systematic EFFECTIVENESS

rationale for why you do what you do—in this case,

the way you teach; and (3) a system of principles or

Numerous studies document that student ratings

values that guides living and action—in this case, that provide meaningful assessment data that should be

shapes or drives your teaching. While nontechnical,

used in faculty reviews, but without exception they the statement must demonstrate an understanding of

recommend including other teaching-related data as

how students learn and practical knowledge of at least well (Aleamoni, 1999; Arreola, 2007; Berk, 2005;

a few student-active teaching methods.

Cashin, 1988, 1995; Centra, 1999; McKeachie, 2002;

Several scholars have proposed lists of ques-

Nuhfer, 2003; Seldin, 2004). While some depart-

tions that a teaching philosophy should address

ments and institutions request additional materials,

(for example, Berke & Kastberg, 1998; Chism,

you should always submit more than your student

1997–1998; Johnston, 2003; Schönwetter, Sokal,

322

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

Friesen, & Taylor, 2002). A careful analysis of their Goals Inventory at http://fm.iowa.uiowa.edu/fmi

recommendations reveals their near total concurrence

/xsl/tgi/data entry.xsl?-db=tgi data&-lay=Layout01

on what you should provide: your theory of how

&-view; the Grasha-Reichman Teaching Style

learning occurs and how teaching can foster it; the

Inventory at http://longleaf.net/teachingstyle.html;

values, goals, or ideals that motivate you to teach;

and the Teaching Perspectives Inventory (TPI)

and the specific teaching methods you use, linking

at www.teachingperspectives.com. In addition to

them to your learning theory or your motivating

finding out more about your own teaching identity,

values, goals, or ideals, or both. The scholars just

you will learn descriptively rich terms for various

phrase the questions differently, and one trigger may teaching aims, styles, and approaches that you can use resonate more with you than others. For example,

in your statement.

Berke and Kastberg ask you to identify the notions

If appropriate, two other topics also belong in a

about learning that make you teach the way you

teaching philosophy. First, you should at least men-

do; Johnston wants you to address the conditions

tion any research on teaching you have done, even if

under which students best learn; and Schönwetter

you have not published it. If you have published it,

et al. ask you to define teaching and learning. Berke refer your reader to the section of your curriculum

and Kastberg elicit your motivations for teaching by

vita where you list it. Second, you should explain, if asking why you teach, and, if you are experienced,

possible, any problematic student evaluations you have why you still teach. They probe for answers among

received in recent years. As mentioned earlier in this your desires, beliefs, values, and hopes for what

chapter, some students have been known to penal-

students will gain from your teaching. Johnston wants ize instructors who teach student-actively, emphasize to know what you are trying to accomplish in your

critical thinking, or use student-centered practices. If teaching, and how your approaches reflect who you

your evaluations have suffered for any of these rea-

are. In one way or another, all of these scholars ask sons and you have continued to teach the way you

for descriptions of and rationales for your teaching

do because you know it is most effective for student

methods and the learning experiences you create for

learning, then state this in your philosophy as an illus-students. Indeed, all philosophies describe what one

tration of your strong educational principles.

does in the classroom, even if some focus more on

Make your statement inviting. Do not try

the theory and others on the motivation to teach.

to cram in more text by covering all the available

One global question that Berke and Kastberg pose

white space. Leave margins of at least one inch

could frame an entire teaching philosophy: What is

and use eleven- or, preferably, twelve-point type.

your conception of a great teacher, and what are you

Write clearly, simply, and with conviction, and

doing to become one?

use transitions generously to shepherd your readers

Some instructors can identify a key belief that

through the document. Once you have a decent draft

is central to how they teach. If you can do this, you of your statement, appraise it against the teaching

can generate a statement of your teaching philosophy

philosophy rubric in Table 32.1, and revise it to meet just by answering these questions: What assumptions

the specifications and qualities under “Excellent.”

about teaching, learning, students, education, and the like underlie your key belief? What values, principles, goals, or ideals does it reflect or spring from? What The Teaching Portfolio

does it imply for your classroom teaching?

This is a collection of materials that you assemble to If you are having troubling articulating key

highlight your major teaching strengths and achieve-

beliefs, a theory of teaching and learning, or your

ments, comparable to your publications, grants, and

motivations for teaching, complete one or more of

scholarly honors in your research record (Seldin,

these free online teaching inventories: the Teaching

2004). It provides a comprehensive, factual base to

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

323

Table 32.1

Rubric for Assessing and Revising a Statement of Teaching Philosophy Excellent

Needs Some Revision

Needs Considerable Revision

Needs a Complete

Rewrite

Content;

Thoroughly and

Addresses the three

Fails to address one of the

Fails to address two of

coverage of

thoughtfully presents a

essential topics but

three essential topics.

the three essential

essential

theory of teaching and

does so too briefly

topics.

topics

learning, teaching values,

or superficially.

goals, and ideals, and

compatible teaching

methods.

Balance of

Well balanced; formal in

Occasionally too

Often lapses into an

A personal stream of

personal and

tone but maintains the

informal or too

inappropriate informality

consciousness or a

professional

sense of “I.”

impersonal.

or loses the sense of “I.”

totally impersonal

essay with no sense

of “I.”

Structure and

Essay is coherent with a

Essay is generally

Essay lacks a coherent

Essay is incoherent

organization

clear introduction, a

coherent but lacks

structure and

and unstructured.

strong conclusion, and

either a clear

organization. Some

Lacks a clear

logical transitions

introduction or a

paragraphs seem out of

introduction, a

between paragraphs and

strong conclusion.

place, unconnected to

clear conclusion,

sentences.

Has some logical

the surrounding text.

and logical

transitions between

Lacks either a clear

transitions between

paragraphs and

introduction or clear

paragraphs and

sentences.

conclusion, or

sentences.

conclusion is very weak.

Has few logical

transitions between

paragraphs and sentences.

Writing style

Writing is clear, concise,

Writing follows the

Writing violates some rules

Writing often violates

and

and smooth. It follows

rules of standard

of standard English and is

the rules of

mechanics

the rules of standard

English with few

sometimes awkward and

standard English

(grammar,

English. Each sentence is

errors in sentence

difficult to understand.

and is generally

punctuation,

connected to the ones

structure and

Some sentences seem

awkward and

and spelling)

before and after. Varied

syntax. Sentences

unconnected and out of

difficult to

sentence structure. Very

are usually

place. Frequent

understand.

few, if any, mechanical

connected. Some

mechanical errors.

Sentences are

errors.

minor mechanical

unconnected.

errors.

Monotonous

sentence structure.

Numerous

mechanical errors.

Presentation

Neatly typed, single-spaced, A bit too long or too

Somewhat too long or too

Sloppy,

and length

twelve-point type, not

short.

short.

double-spaced,

cramped. Optimal

type too small,

length: one to one and a

cramped, or much

half pages, possibly two

too long or too

pages if very

short.

experienced.

324

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

develop self-assessment and improvement efforts

of the materials and data that support your criteria, and for peers and administrators to make sound

such as student assignments, journals, test results,

hiring, promotion, and tenure decisions. The five-

ratings, and the like, and gather these artifacts for the to ten-page statement that you write presents both

appendixes. In your statement, refer readers to these basic information about your teaching responsibilities items as examples or evidence.

and your critical, improvement-driven analysis of

Institutions that use teaching portfolios vary

the content you selected to put in the appendixes,

somewhat in the required components and preferred

such as your teaching contributions, professional

organization. For example, yours may want you to

activities, course materials, student ratings, and peer integrate your teaching philosophy, five-year teaching feedback.

goals, self-evaluation, course updates and improve-

While faculty most often put together a teaching

ments, and teaching-related professional activities

portfolio for a formal personnel review, your purpose into your teaching statement. Or it may recommend

will influence what you include and how you orga-

that you accompany each item in the appendixes

nize it. To ensure objectivity in selecting materials, with a paragraph of two linking it to your teaching

prepare your portfolio in consultation with a mentor, responsibilities, your criteria for effectiveness, and a trusted colleague, your department chair, or a teach-other information you provide in your teaching

ing center consultant. Your partner can help you focus statement. So check first with your department chair.

on the important questions: What is the purpose of

If

not

incorporated

into

your

teaching

the portfolio? What information will your audience

statement, these items probably belong in your

find useful? Which areas of your teaching best serve

appendixes:

your purpose? What is the best way to present and an-

alyze the information? What additional information

•

Your teaching philosophy

do you need, and how can you obtain it? For in-

•

Your teaching goals for the next five years

stance, reviewers involved in personnel decisions will

•

A brief self-evaluation with your teaching im-

be looking to see that you accurately represent your

provement strategies and efforts, including the

teaching responsibilities, that your teaching goals fit teaching center services, workshops, and programs

with the department’s and institution’s, that you have you have taken advantage of

sought peer input, and that your students have left

•

Descriptions of improvements and updates in your

your courses both satisfied and more knowledgeable.

course assignments, materials, and activities

Approach assembling the teaching portfolio as

•

A list of your teaching-related professional

a step-by-step process (Seldin, 2004), starting with a activities, such as instructional research (the schol-teaching statement. First, summarize your teaching

arship of teaching and learning), publications,

responsibilities in a few paragraphs, describing the

journal editing and reviewing, conference presen-

types of courses you teach, your student learning

tations, and invited teaching workshops (include

outcomes, your approach to course design, your

abstracts or reprints of your published research

expectations for student progress, and your assessment on teaching and summaries of your unpublished

strategies. Then explain and prioritize your criteria research in the appendixes)

for assessing your teaching effectiveness along with

•

Syllabi and other important course materials (a

your reasons for choosing these criteria. They should DVD of one of your class periods is optional)

coincide with your teaching style and responsibilities

•

A list of students you have advised or supervised

and reflect the purpose of the portfolio. For instance, in research projects

if you particularly want to demonstrate your im-

•

Teaching awards, honors, and other types

provement, then rank your participation in teaching

of recognition, such as teaching committee

workshops and programs high. Finally, make a list

appointments

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

325

•

Student ratings and comments from all your

•

Students’ opinions of their success in achieving

courses

your learning outcomes (extra student ratings

form item)

Ask whether your department or institution

•

A list of your successful mentees in the discipline

would like any of these testimonial-type supporting

•

Information on how you have influenced

materials:

students’ postgraduate and career choices

•

Students’ scores on standardized tests, especially

•

Statements from peers or administrators who have

the sections of national and licensing exams that

observed your teaching

reflect your courses

•

Statements from peers who have reviewed your

course materials

You can read examples of high-quality teach-

•

Statements from peers on how well you have pre-

ing portfolios in Seldin (2004) or at www.ilr.cornell pared your students for more advanced courses

.edu/TAC/toolbox/portfoli/examples.html.

•

A statement from your chair or supervisor about

your past and projected departmental contri-

The Course Portfolio

butions

•

Statements from employers about graduates who

This collection of materials summarizes how you

studied a great deal with you

planned, taught, managed, and currently evaluate

•

Statements from service-learning clients on the

a particular course, so you might assemble one on

impact of your student projects

every course you regularly teach. Not as widely

•

Statements from your advisees and research

used as a teaching portfolio, a course portfolio

mentees about how you have influenced them

contains many of the same materials but organizes

•

Statements and letters, solicited and unsolicited,

them around a course rather than your teaching

from former students about your longer-term

career. It also serves the same purposes of promoting teaching impact

self-assessment and improvement and encouraging

sounder hiring, promotion, and tenure decisions

Finally, your reviewers may be interested in

with respect to teaching effectiveness (Cerbin, 1994; more data from and about your students:

Hutchings, 1998).

These are the kinds of documents that belong in

•

Student feedback or evaluation summaries that

a course portfolio (Cerbin, 1994; Hutchings, 1998):

reflect improvement, perceived learning, or

satisfaction—aside from student ratings and

•

Course syllabus, with student learning objectives

comments

and outcomes

•

Samples of student work on graded assignments

•

Brief description of course’s content and its place

(include samples of varying quality with your

in the curriculum

feedback and your reasons for the grades you

•

Important handouts

assigned)

•

Annotated list of teaching methods

•

Surveys of student knowledge at the beginning

•

Descriptions of assignments, if not in the syllabus

and the end of a course

•

Laboratory exercises or problem sets

•

Improvements in students’ attitudes about the sub-

•

Descriptions of special class activities, such as

ject matter, as documented by final reflection or

simulations, role plays, case studies, problem-based

personal-growth essays or by attitudinal surveys

learning projects, laptop exercises, service-learning you administer at the beginning and the end of

assignments, guest speakers, and field trips

the course

•

Samples of graded student work

326

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

•

Assessment instruments: quizzes, tests, and major

evaluating faculty performance, both suitable for pro-classroom assessment techniques

motion and tenure.

•

Results of midterm student feedback

Glassick, Huber, and Maeroff (1997) build their

•

Summaries of the teaching center services, work-

system around six standards for judging all forms of

shops, and programs you took advantage of to

scholarship—discovery, integration, application, and

improve this course

teaching:

•

End-of-term

student

ratings

and

written

comments

•

Clear and realistic goals, objectives, and purpose

•

Feedback from any peer or administrator class-

to the work

room observations

•

Adequate preparation in skills, resources, and

•

A reflective narrative of several pages

background knowledge

•

Appropriate methods properly and flexibly imple-

This last element is the most important. The

mented to meet the goals

document should incorporate some of the material

•

Significant results and impact; achievement of

listed above and refer to the rest. You might organize the goals

it around these course topics (Cerbin, 1994, 1995):

•

Effective presentation; clear and honest commu-

nication to the intended audience

•

Design. Why did you organize the course the way

•

Reflective critique; evaluation of the results with

you did? How does it reflect your teaching philos-

plans for improvement. (Reprinted with permis-

ophy and serve your student learning outcomes?

sion of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

How does it help you meet the course’s major

In fact, funding agencies, journal editors and re-

challenges?

viewers, and faculty review bodies already use these

•

Enactment. What did the students experience dur-standards, at least implicitly, in assessing research pro-ing the course? What are the reasons behind your

posals, manuscripts, and publications. While Glassick important assignments, class activities, and assess-et al. (1997) do not flesh out their system down to

ment strategies? (Including a DVD of your major

specific indicators and measures, they do suggest how class activities is optional.)

we can easily apply these same standards in evaluating

•

Results. What did students learn in the course?

teaching:

How did they change? What did they not achieve

that you hoped they would?

•

To assess goals, peers examine the student learning

•

Evaluative analysis. What is your overall assessment outcomes in the syllabi, the teaching philosophy,

of the course and your teaching of it? What will

and any portfolio statement or narrative.

you change to improve it?

•

To assess preparation, peers examine the currency

and appropriateness of the course content and

readings in the syllabi.

COMPREHENSIVE APPROACHES

•

To assess methods, peers examine the appropri-

TO FACULTY EVALUATION

ateness of the teaching and assessment methods

chosen (in the syllabi, teaching philosophy, and

The traditional way of appraising faculty performance teaching or course portfolio).

has weighted research far more heavily than teach-

•

To assess results, peers examine student per-

ing, has relied almost exclusively on student ratings to formance on assessment instruments and other

assess teaching effectiveness, and has followed idiosyn-available indicators of learning, as well as student

cratic procedures. Some institutions have responded

ratings on items relevant to perceived learning,

by adopting one of two comprehensive systems for

challenge, interest, and motivation to learn.

Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

327

•

To assess presentation, peers examine student rat-

Once the department sets the parameters and

ings on communication-relevant items.

implements the system, each faculty member under

•

To assess reflective critique, peers examine the

review ends up with a rating, usually between 1.0

teaching philosophy, any portfolio statement or

and 4.0 or between 1.0 and 5.0, that represents the

narrative, and any other self-assessment document.

collective judgment of that individual’s performance

in each faculty role. These numbers are weighted (as

in step 2) and added to create an overall composite

Arreola’s (2007) system, now used in whole

rating (OCR). The OCR is then compared against

or part at hundreds of North American institutions,

the evaluative standards set by the top-level admin-

includes detailed, step-by-step guidelines for imple-

istration. Therefore, faculty are not compared against menting it on a comprehensive scale, starting with

each other but against an absolute standard. In a 1.0 to these departmental decisions:

4.0 system where 1.0 denotes “unsatisfactory” and 4.0

means “exemplary” or “exceptional,” 3.0 may desig-

Step 1. Determine and list all the faculty activities nate the “acceptable” level. This system easily adapts worth evaluating at your institution: research, teach-to any review—tenure, promotions, raises, and post-

ing, advising, community service, professional service, tenure.

university service, and so on.

The key—and the challenge—to instituting any

Step 2. Weight the importance of each activity in comprehensive faculty evaluation system is forging a

percentages that add up to 100 percent.

departmental consensus on appropriate faculty activ-

ities, their relative value, the relative value of their Step 3. Define each activity as a list of components—

components, and the relative value of their informa-

that is, observable or documentable products,

tion sources. The decision-making process is all about performances, and achievements. For example, a

values, bringing them out from under the table and

department may agree to define teaching in terms of

laying them out on the table.

content expertise, instructional design skills, instruc-Some academics have complained that such

tional delivery skills, impact on student learning, and systems undermine professional and administrative

course management.

judgment, but all they really do is eliminate a

Step 4. Weight the components of each role, again in review party’s discretion to say one thing and do

percentages.

another—for example, to claim to value teaching and

Step 5. Determine the best sources of evaluation service but to decide the fate of faculty careers solely information—for example, students, department

on the research record. By demanding integrity and

peers, outside peers in specialized areas, the

making the review process transparent, such systems

department chair, or someone else.

can only benefit those who value, practice, and

document teaching at its best.

Step 6. Weight each information source by appropriate worth. (A spreadsheet can do all the arithmetic

required in steps 2, 4, and 6).

COMPLEX BEYOND MEASURE

Step 7. Determine how to gather the information from each source, such as by using forms or question-Evaluating and documenting teaching effectiveness

naires.

is genuinely hard. It requires considerable evidence

Step 8. Select or design the appropriate policies, just to show that you are trying to excel in your

procedures, protocols, and forms for your system.

teaching. Even if you administer standardized tests to Model forms are readily available in Chism (1999)

demonstrate your students’ learning, you will obtain

and Arreola (2007).

limited data because the best of them cannot tap into

328

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

noncognitive outcomes and all possible cognitive

instrument, what assembly of data can possibly

ones. Moreover, the evidence that a teaching phi-

capture

this

elusive,

multilayered,

multifaceted

losophy, a teaching portfolio, or a course portfolios transaction in which one individual tries to induce

presents is “soft”—not the kind that would stand up

other individuals to process new knowledge, acquire

under scientific scrutiny or in a court of law. The

new skills, and change their thinking? The “other

reviewers must arrive at a judgment based on the

individuals,” the students, each bring their own

preponderance of evidence and the precedents set by

unique backgrounds, abilities, aptitudes, attitudes,

faculty who were recently reviewed at their own and

interests, and aspirations to the table, and the “one comparable institutions.

individual,” which is you, can motivate, persuade,

The

fact

is

that

teaching

represents

a

explain, inspire, and nurture learning only as far as relationship—not a single relationship but one

each student will allow. You can’t bring everyone

between the instructor and every student in every

with you, but if you strive for teaching excel-

one of her classes over many terms. Superimposed

lence, you can bring most students with you—

on these many relationships are those among all of

enough to give your professional life magnificent

her students who ever interacted in a class. What

meaning.

A P P E N D I X

Instructional Support and Resources

at Your Institution

Teachingwell at the collegelevelstartswith countlesshours,andtheinformationtheyfurnishcan becoming familiar with your institutional en-prevent costly, however innocent, mistakes.

vironment. Instructors, especially new ones,

need to realize that they cannot and should not try

For Faculty, Students, and Staff

to handle all the many challenges of their jobs single-Colleagues, especially senior ones, are perhaps the handedly. Every college and university is a large, mul-most conveniently located and sometimes the most

tilayered organization—a few rivaling small cities in knowledgeable sources of information on discipline-size and complexity—each with its own unique sub-

specific issues, including how best to teach certain

culture, norms and values, official power structure,

material, what to expect of students in specific

informal power networks, and infrastructure of ser-

vices and support units. Even seasoned faculty in a

courses, how to motivate students in a given subject, new institution feel unsettled as they anticipate unfa-how to locate appropriate guest speakers, how to

miliar policies, forms, procedures, expectations, and prepare for tenure and other faculty reviews, how to

types of students.

obtain special services or funding, and what assistance Most colleges and universities offer a wealth

to request from department support staff. Colleagues

of instructional support services and resources—the

are also excellent sources of informal feedback on

library and computer services being among the most

teaching; most will be happy to serve as a classroom

obvious. But the instructional help available from

observer or teaching videotape reviewer. (Also see

some individuals and units may not be obvious from

the information below on teaching centers.)

their titles or names alone. The people and campus

Department chairs can offer broader, departmen-offices described here are well worth your getting to tal perspectives on discipline-specific issues. They are know. The referral services they provide can save you especially well informed on departmental curriculum

329

330

APPENDIX

matters and can advise on proposals to develop new

other criteria. These resources can also help your

courses and revise established ones. They may also

students broaden their research horizons beyond

provide the best counsel on standards and procedures

Google, and librarians will teach your class how to

for promotion and tenure. Finally, since they have the use them for the assignments you have in mind.

opportunity to study the teaching evaluations of all

While libraries still provide traditional services,

the courses and sections in the department, chairs can the card catalogue, library requests, and interlibrary help interpret the student ratings and written com-loan are usually online. Beyond print and electronic

ments, as well as suggest ways to improve them.

resources, libraries also maintain a collection of inThe dean’s office of your college, school, or di-structionally useful videos, CDs, and DVDs.

vision can advise you about promotion and tenure

A teaching, faculty development, or instructional de-matters, student characteristics, curriculum issues, and velopment center has become an increasingly common course design and development from a still broader

resource on research- as well as teaching-oriented

perspective. Demographic and academic data about

campuses. It usually provides instructional consul-

the student body will prove particularly valuable in

tation and training services to faculty and teaching

helping you decide on the objectives, design, con-

assistants, such as classroom videotaping, classroom

tent, and techniques for each of your courses. You will observations, class interviews (often in a small-group also need information about curriculum policies and

format called a small group instructional diagnosis), procedures: What general education or breadth re-midterm student evaluations, advisory consultations,

quirements do your courses satisfy? What percentage

orientations for new instructors, teaching workshops, of students will enroll in a particular course because and assistance in classroom research (also called

they are required to take it? How do you propose

action research and the scholarship of teaching

and get approval for a new course? What compo-

and learning). Often these centers also maintain

nents and assignments must a course have to qualify

a library, run lecture series, publish a newsletter

for “honors,” “writing,” or any other special desig-

and teaching handbook, consult to departments

nation? Finally, the dean’s office may be the place to and colleges on curricula and assessment, award

turn for help with classroom matters—for example,

minigrants for teaching innovations and travel to

if the classroom you are assigned doesn’t meet your

teaching conferences and workshops, and maintain

class size, ventilation, or technological needs, or if a Web page with links to online teaching resources.

you need a room reserved for special class activities Some house language testing and training programs

and sessions. In large universities, departments may

for international teaching assistants.

control a set of classrooms and handle such matters.

On a number of campuses, these centers also

The library is not just a place to find books any-offer consultations and training in instructional

more. Having adapted to the technological age in

technology, such as the most effective pedagogical

record time, libraries have expanded into one-stop

applications and the how-to’s of available software

shops for electronic information, as well as print re-

(see Chapter Twenty-Two). Certainly those with

sources, and librarians have evolved into the sentinals

“instructional development” or “technology” in the

of information literacy.

title do, and these may housed within larger tech-

You don’t have to go to the library for many of

nology units. But most campuses have specialized,

these resources. Just visiting its Web page will give stand-alone teaching centers.

you easy access to an impressive range of academic

A center for academic computing, information tech-search engines, indexes, and databases, such as Lexis-nology, or instructional technology is the most likely unit Nexis, InfoTrac, OneFile, Ingenta, Web of Science,

to handle the computing needs of faculty, as well as

and EBSCO Host, which allow you to find scholarly

students and staff, from setting up email accounts to publications by subject, author, publication type, and replacing old terminals. Its major functions are client

Appendix

331

support in both hardware and software and training

expect—and an essential one on today’s highly

workshops in commonly used office, technical, and

diverse campuses. They usually offer symposia and

instructional software. This support usually includes lectures on cultural topics and coordinate multi-buying the software and licenses and installing the

cultural celebrations and commemorations. Many

software on request. Almost all campuses have some

of them maintain libraries of print materials and

brand of course management software, such as Black-

videos—most valuable if you are teaching multicul-

board, which is currently the most popular.

tural subjects—and a few sponsor art exhibits and

In the past decade, these centers transformed

musical performances. Typically they also provide

many traditional classrooms into smart classrooms

support services for students of color.

equipped with software-rich computer terminals,

Of particular value to faculty and staff are cul-

LCD projectors, VCRs, CD-ROM and DVD

tural awareness programs, including diversity training players, and Ethernet connections. In some cases

workshops. These centers can also answer your pri-

these classrooms have laptop stations rather than

vate questions about the minority student population

computers. Scheduling, maintaining, and updating

on your campus and cultural differences among vari-

these classrooms is a full-time job. Some centers overous groups. They will help you resolve any concerns

see mandated or voluntary laptop programs, which

about relating to students of color in the classroom.

may entail training the faculty in their technical and An international

center typically administers

pedagogical use, training the students, leasing the

study-abroad and international internship programs

laptops or negotiating purchasing deals, and servicing and sets up new ones to meet the demands of the

the laptops, as well as retrofitting classrooms with

rapidly changing world economy. For example, many

wireless connections.

universities have recently added programs in China,

Centers vary in how much instructional design

Southeast Asia, and India. Often in conjuction with

they do for faculty who are teaching wholly and

an area studies center, this kind of unit also equips partly online. On one extreme, some universities

the students and faculty traveling abroad with some

expect instructors to learn the necessary software

basic global competencies, such as information on

for Web page design, animation, photo and video

the social and cultural differences between Americans digitizing and editing, and so forth in specialized

and natives of a host country.

workshops and on their own. On the other extreme

The center also provides acculturation counsel-

are the institutions that employ instructional designers ing and support for international students and their

to do all the technical work for the faculty. Most fall families, as well as legal advice on visas, work permits, in between.

taxes, and others areas. On some campuses, the in-

A women’s center often provides a wider variety ternational center is also responsible for English as a of services than the lecture series, library, and sup-Second Language testing and courses.

port groups that you would expect. It is well worth

An equal opportunity center may go by any num-asking if the one on your campus also sponsors self-

ber of titles, but you should look for key words such development and health workshops, career planning

as “opportunity development,” “affirmative action,”

forums, book and study groups, and writers’ groups.

“equality,” “equity,” and “civil rights.” Its purpose is No doubt it offers legal and policy information about to coordinate state and federally mandated programs

sexual harassment as well as emotional support for

designed to ensure equal opportunities for minorities, those who may have a complaint. However, com-women, individuals with disabilities, and other disad-plaints are probably processed by the equal opportu-

vantaged groups. It also serves as a source of infor-

nity unit described below.

mation for students, faculty, and staff who may have

Multicultural and racial/ethnic cultural centers may questions or complaints related to equal opportunity

be a richer instructional resource than one might

in education, employment, and campus programs and

332

APPENDIX

activities. If a complaint is judged valid, it will also Just for Students

advise on grievance procedures.

The centers described may serve your own or your

Sexual harassment falls under the equal opportu-

students’ needs. Let’s consider now the units and in-

nity umbrella. Often in collaboration with a women’s

dividuals that specialize in serving students. Students center (see above), an equal opportunity office

seeking general academic counsel should be referred

disseminates information on the legal definition of

to their academic advisers; those requesting informa-

sexual harassment, the institution’s policy regarding it, tion or assistance with respect to a specific course

specific types of harassment behavior, its prevalence, should be sent to the instructor or the department.

its prevention, procedures for filing a complaint or a At times, however, students need help with other

grievance, and confidential support and counseling

problems—some that most instructors are ill equipped

services.

to address. These include learning disabilities, math A disabilities center identifies students with learn-or test anxiety, severe writing problems, poor study

ing as well as physical disabilities and usually issues and test-taking skills, weak academic backgrounds,

written certification of these disabilities for instruc-emotional difficulties, and career planning questions.

tors. As required by the Americans with Disabilities

These cases call for a referral to a unit in the next Act of 1990, this type of center ensures that people

group.

with disabilities have equal access to public programs Almost all campuses have a facility designed

and services. Therefore, it also recommends the spe-

to help students improve their academic skills. It is cial accommodations, if any, that instructors should

often called a learning, learning skills, learning resources, make for identified students in their teaching and

academic assistance, or academic support center, and its testing.

services typically include individual counseling in

Most accommodations are minor (for example,

academic skills, individual and small-group tutoring, an isolated test environment or a longer test period), workshops in learning strategies (for example, reading and the center may provide special facilities for

skills, study skills, note taking, test preparation, and them, such as proctored testing rooms. In any case,

test taking). Some tutoring may be geared to specific it will advise the instructor about exactly what

courses or subject matter known to give students

accommodations are needed. For hearing-impaired

trouble, such as calculus, chemistry, physics, biology, classroom students, the instructor may have to stand

economics, and foreign languages. This type of

or sit where the student can lip-read. For visually

center may also offer English as a Second Language

impaired classroom students, you may have to

testing and courses.

vocalize or verbally describe any visual materials you A writing or communication program may be

present or distribute to the class. Appropriate testing housed in a learning center or comprise its own

may require you to make a large-print copy of the

stand-alone unit. It is likely to provide individual or exam or allow the students use of a reader, scribe, or small-group tutoring in the mechanics of grammar

computer during the test.

and punctuation, as well as the structure of exam es-

Online learning demands more extensive adap-

says, short papers, critical papers, and research papers.

tations, but usually the student’s own specialized com-It may even schedule formal writing workshops.

puter hardware and software will take care of most

Staff are trained not to outline or edit student work, access problems. Still, instructors must be mindful to but rather to show students how to master the stages

keep Web pages uncluttered and to provide captions

of the writing process on their own.

or transcripts for audio materials and text alternatives If “communication” is in the title, the unit may

for visual materials.

be one of a small but growing number of centers

Appendix

333

that also help students improve their public speaking job search strategies, résumé preparation, communi-and presentation skills. These are usually associated cation and decision-making skills, and job interview

with an active speaking- or communication-across-

techniques may also be available. Some centers hold

the-curriculum program.

campus job fairs and help graduates obtain jobs.

A psychological or counseling center is the place to refer students who manifest any type of psycho-All of these campus units will welcome your

logical or emotional disorder. As students usually

requests for further information and will point you to show signs of trouble only in more private en-their Web page or mail you their brochures, newslet-

vironments, Chapter Nine on office hours lists

ters, and any other materials they furnish for students.

the behaviors to watch out for. This type of unit

They are well worth learning about because they are

gives free individual counseling for psychological,

service centers with a service orientation. They exist emotional, and sometimes academic problems, and

to meet your and your students’ needs—instructional,

it may coordinate group programs for personal

professional, or personal. Unless their resources are growth, self-improvement, and self-awareness. If it is already stretched beyond capacity, they actively

associated with a medical facility or it has a physician pursue and benefit from increasing use. So if they

on staff, it may also prescribe drugs.

can make your life as an instructor easier or more

A career center helps students identify and achieve fulfilling, if they can save you class and office hour their occupational goals. It typically provides assess-time, if they can handle any of the many student

ment tests in skills and interests and resources for ca-requests and problems that pass through your office

reer exploration, as well as information on intern-

door, by all means take advantage of their invaluable ship opportunities and summer jobs. Workshops on

services.

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INDEX

Note to index: An e following a page number denotes an exhibit on that page; an f following a page number denotes a figure on that page; a t following a page number denotes a table on that page.

A

Analytical convergent questions, 143

BlackBerry, 266

Analytical grading, 307–309, 308 t, 312

Blackboard, 86, 246, 257, 331

Absolute knowing, 8, 9 t

Anderson, S., 193–194

Bligh, D. A., 117

Abstract conceptualization (AC) mode, 230,

Anderson and Krathwohl’s hybrid

231

Blogs, 266–267

taxonomy, 21, 22 t–23 t

Academic dishonesty, 35, 80

Bloom, B., 224

Angelo, T. A., 243, 274, 280

Academic games, 148

Bloom’s taxonomy, 21, 138–140; analysis,

Arreola, R. A., 327

Academic integrity: detecting cheating, 85;

110 e; application, 109 e–110 e; Assessment. See Classroom assessment

determinants of cheating, 84–85; honor

comprehension, 109 e; on declarative

techniques (CATs); Summative

codes, 87–88; prevalence of cheating,

learning, 275; discussion questions at

assessment; Summative assessment,

83–84; preventing cheating, 85–87;

each cognitive level, 139 t; evaluation,

grading

student views on cheating, 88

111 e; knowledge, 108 e; outcomes,

Assignment aids, on syllabus, 36

Academic reading skills, 214

examples, 23 t; outcomes, teaching

Assimilators, 231, 232

Accommodators, 231

moves for, 108 e–111 e; performance

Astin, A. W., 156

Accountability, 18; in group learning,

verbs for, 22 t–23 t; questions at each Attendance/tardiness, 35, 82

158–160; for student readings, 218–221

level, examples, 139 t; synthesis,

Auditory learning, 232

Action research, 279, 330

110 e–111 e

Ausubel, D., 242

Active experimentation (AE) mode, 230,

Bok, D., 103, 112

231

Bonwell, C. C., 117

B

Active learning, 5, 52, 202–203, 317

Brainy break, 117

Active recall strategy, 214–215

Bafa Bafa, 149

Brevity criterion, for multiple copying, 65

Active vs. reflective learning, 234–235

Ballard, M., 40

Bridges, E. M., 188

Ad hoc group, 161

Barnga, 149

Bridgwood, M. A., 195, 196

Addition words, 216

Baxter Magolda’s levels of knowing:

Brock University, 263

Adjunct instructor: classroom incivility and,

absolute, 8, 9 t; contextual, 8, 9 t;

Brookfield, S. D., 130–131

72, 73; student cheating and, 84–85, 86

independent, 8, 9 t; transitional, 8, 9 t

Brookfield and Preskill’s “momentum”

Adult learner, 8, 13, 162

Beam, R., 117

questions, 141–142; cause-and-effect

Advance organizer, 242

Behaviorist theory, 53

questions, 141; clarification questions,

Affective learning outcomes, 19, 20 e

Berke, A., 322

141; hypothetical questions, 141; linking

Aleamoni, L. M., 318

Berry, W., 148, 164

and extension questions, 141–142; open

American Sociological Association Code of

Big bang theory, 6–7

questions, 141; questions requesting

Ethics, 148

Biggs, J., 13

more evidence, 141; summary and

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 35

Biological basis, of learning, 4–5

synthesis questions, 142

367

368

INDEX

Bruff, D., 122

prospectus, 276; punctuated lecture,

Cooperative learning, 155, 162

Bullet case, 183

277; research on, 279–280; rooted in

Copyright: broadcast programming, 67;

Buzan, T., 245

good teaching practice, 274; RSQC2

cable channel programs, 68; course

(recall, summarize, question, connect,

packets, 66; fair use criteria, 64–65; free

C

and comment), 277; selecting, 274–275;

use, 64; in-class performance, 66–67;

Calisphere, 263

self-confidence survey, 49, 276–277;

legal information on, 63–64;

Campus support services, on syllabus,

student portfolio, 278–279;

misconceptions about, 64; multiple

35–36

teacher-directed, 274

copying, 65; online/electronic materials,

Career center, 333

Classroom conduct contract, 75

68–69; overview of copyright law, 64;

Case method: bullet case, 183; continuous

Classroom incivility. See Incivility, classroom permissions/licenses, 69; printed text,

case, 183; debriefing case, 184–185;

Classroom research, 279

65–66; public domain and, 65; public

directed case, 184; effectiveness of,

Clickers, 48, 121–122, 202, 261

television, 67–68; short works, 65–66;

181–182; knowledge synthesis and, 183;

Cognitive development: Anderson and

single copying, 65; television

minicase, 106, 183, 286;

Krathwohl’s hybrid taxonomy, 21,

programming, 67–68; violations, 69–70;

problems-remedies-prevention

22 t–23 t; Baxter Magolda’s levels of

visual materials, 66

debriefing formula, 184; qualities of

knowing, 8–9 t; Bloom’s taxonomy ( See

Copyright Clearance Center, 69

good case, 183; realism, enhancing, 183;

Bloom’s taxonomy); Fink’s categories of

Cornell note-taking system, 123

Counseling center, 333

risk aspect of, 183; sequential-interactive

learning, 20, 26–27; knowledge

Course coordination, between

case, 184; subject matter for, 182–183;

uncertainties and, 10–11; Perry’s theory

faculty/teaching assistant: course

uncertainty aspect of, 183; vignettes, 183

of student development, 8, 9 t–10; of

content, 97; course review, 95–96;

Case method teaching method, 106

undergraduates, 8–10, 9 t

Cashin, W. E., 318, 319

Cognitive learning outcomes, 19, 20 e

mentoring relationship, 98–100; regular

meetings/feedback, 96–98; role

Cause-and-effect questions, 141

Collaborative learning. See Group learning

specifications, 96; student learning

Cause-and-effect words, 216

Colleague, as information source, 329

CD-ROMs, 262

Commonsense inventory, 50

assessment, 98; TA lesson plans, 97–98

Course format, 104–105

Cell phones, 266

Comparative questions, 140

Chameleon questions, 143

Comparison words, 216

Course information, for syllabus, 34

Course management system. See Learning

Change-your-mind debate, 146

Completion (fill-in-blank) test items,

management system

Chatroom, 260

283–284

Cheating, 84–88

Computer smart classroom, 203

Course packet, and copyright, 66

Course portfolio, 325–326, 328

Christian, W., 179

Concept circle diagram, 248–250; context

Course schedule, weekly/class-by-class, on

Chung, C., 90

map, 249; scoring, 250; Venn diagram,

syllabus, 36

Chunking, 8, 108, 115, 118, 124, 169, 201,

248–249 f

Creative Commons, 66

228

Concept map, 217–218, 243–245, 276;

Circles of

, 49

changing levels among maps, 244, 245 f ;

Criterion-referenced grading, 58

Critical questions, 141

Claim-data-warrant model, 224

simple maps, examples, 244 f ;

Cross, K. P., 243, 274, 280

Clarification questions, 141

subordinate concept in, 243, 244;

CSERDA Metadata Catalog, 263

Clarke, M., 87

superordinate concept in, 243, 244

Curricular requirements satisfied by course,

Class email, 259

Concept writing assignment, 168

Class ranking, 302

Concrete experience (CE) mode, 230, 231

on syllabus, 36

Class survey, 48

Conditional learning, 275

D

Classroom assessment techniques (CATs),

Conferencing software, 260

49, 106, 273–277; application cards,

CONFU, 68

Darwin, C., 6

277; background knowledge probe, 49,

Conklin, M. S., 269

Databases of Concept Questions, 122, 286

275; concept map ( See Concept map);

Connective and causal effect questions,

Davis, E. A., 163

context specific, 274; dialectical notes,

140–141

Dead-end questions, 143–144

170, 220; directed paraphrasing, 170,

Constructed response instrument, 290–294

Dean’s office, 330

274; everyday ethical dilemmas, 276;

Context-rich problems, 197

Debriefing case, 184–185

features of, 274; focused listing, 49, 275;

Contextual knowing, 8, 9 t

Decision Sciences: Journal of Innovative

formative, 274; formative feedback,

Continuous case, 183

Education, 150

277–278; learner-centered, 274;

Contract grading, 58

Declarative learning, 274–275

learning log, 169–170; memory matrix,

Contrast words, 216

Deductive holistic grading, 305

275; muddiest point, 275–276; mutually

Convergers, 231, 232

Del.icio.us, 268

beneficial, 274; one-minute paper,

Cookbook science lab teaching method,

Department chair, 329–330

168–169, 274; one-sentence summary,

106

Derived learning style, 231;

169; ongoing, 274; paper or project

Cooper, J., 120

accommodators, 231; assimilators, 231,

Index

369

232; convergers, 231, 232; divergers,

Evaluative questions, 140

Fleming and Mills’s sensory-based learning

231

Examples, using in lecture, 115

style typology (VARK), 232–234;

Design guidelines: presentation software,

Expectancy theory, 54–55

auditory, 232; kinesthetic, 233–234;

261

Experiential learning activity, 5; academic

read/write, 232; visual, 233

Desire2Learn, 257

games, 148; change-your-mind debate,

Flesch-Kincaid (English) Readability Test,

D-F-W (drop, fail, withdraw) rate, 203

146; expert individual or team, 146;

218

Dialectical notes, 170, 220

panel discussion, 146–147;

Flip charts, 255

Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1988,

point-counterpoint, 146; press

Focal questions, 142

68

conference, 147; role playing, 147–148;

Force Concept Inventory, 179, 205

Diigo, 268

service-learning, 151–153; simulations,

Force Motion Conceptual Evaluation, 205

Directed case, 184

149–151; speaking-intensive, 221;

Forgetting curve, 113, 114, 116

Directed discussion teaching method, 106

structured controversy, 146; student

Formative assessment, 121, 274. See also

Directed paraphrasing, 170, 274

presentation format, 145–147;

Formative feedback

Disabilities center, 332

symposium, 147; town meeting, 146;

Formative feedback, 277–278

Disclaimer, on syllabus, 36

using virtual worlds, 268–269

Foundational outcomes, 24–25

Discovery learning, 176

Experimental demonstrations, in science

Free use, 64

Discussion board, 260

lecture, 202

Freeloaders, and group learning, 159–160

Discussion course format: benefits of, 105,

Expert individuals or teams, 146

Free-recall, 118

127–128; breaking into small groups,

Extra credit/bonus points, 58

Freewrites, 168, 218

133–134; cold-calling by random

Extrinsic motivator, 51

Fuzzy questions, 143

selection, 130; directing traffic,

Eye contact, 78, 129

134–135; encouraging nonparticipants,

G

134; equity and, 130–131; facilitating

F

Gale and Andrews’s “high-mileage” types,

discussion, 131; from first day, 128–129;

Facebook, 13, 256, 268

142; brainstorming questions, 142; focal

grading on participation, 129; ground

Faculty development, using case method,

questions, 142; playground questions,

rules for participation, 129–130; igniting

182

142

exchange, 132–133; motivating

Fair use, 64–65

Games, academic, 148

attention, 133; motivating preparation,

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act,

Gardner, H., 229

131–132; participation strategies,

13

Gavrin, A. D., 179

131–135; predetermined order, 130;

Feedback and group learning, 162

Gender equity, 131

raised-hands method, 130; readying

Feichtner, S. B., 163

Gender-neutral language, 58

class, 132; responding to student

Felder, R. M., 176

Generation Y, 11

responses, 134; setting stage, 128–131;

Feldman, K. A., 234–236, 318

Glassick, C. E., 326

waiting for responses, 133

Felder and Silverman’s Index of Learning

Gogel, H. K., 90

Dishonesty policy, for syllabus, 35

Styles (ILS), 234–236; active vs.

Golding, T. L., 58

Distance learning, and copyright, 68–69

reflective, 234–235; intuitive vs. sensing,

Gowin, B. D., 244

Divergers, 231

235–236; sequential vs. global, 236;

Grades: analytical grading, 307–309, 308 t,

Donald, J., 225

verbal vs. visual, 235

312; based on participation, 129;

Dualistic thinking, 10, 25

Felten, P., 250–251

contract grading, 311;

Dunn, J. P., 146

Fieldwork and clinicals teaching method,

criterion-referenced grading, 58,

106

302–303; deductive holistic grading,

E

Fill-in-blank test items, 283–284

305; disagreement on meaning of

Educational Testing Services, 286

Fink’s categories of learning, 20, 26–27

grades, 301–302; grade change request,

Ego-stroking questions, 143

First day of class: classroom incivility issues,

81; level of performance, per grade, 302;

Eison, J. A., 117

75; course information, 46–47;

norm-referenced grading, 58;

Ellis, D., 245–246

discussion course format, 128–129;

relationship with teacher evaluations,

Email, class, 259

ending class, 50; exchanging

317. See also Rubrics; Summative

Emotions, learning through, 5

information, 45–48; first impressions,

assessment, grading

Emphasis words, 216

45; learning students’ names, 47–48;

Grading leniently hypothesis, 317

Engineering, writing in, 225

own background, telling students about,

Grading scale, for syllabus, 34

E-portfolio, 261, 264, 291

46; preparations before, 43–44;

Graduate student instructor: classroom

Equal opportunity center, 331–332

reciprocal interview, 47; social

incivility and, 73–74; student cheating

ETEA, 257

icebreakers, 48–49; student information

and, 84–85, 86. See also Course

Ethical learning outcomes, 19, 20 e

index cards, 46; subject matter

coordination, between faculty/teaching

Ethnic cultural center, 331

icebreakers, 49–50

assistant

Evaluation criteria, for syllabus, 34

Fleming, N. C., 232–234

Graphic syllabus, 7–8, 37–39, 246 f

370

INDEX

Grasha-Reichman Teaching Goals

Holistic grading, 304–307; rubric for,

Inquiry learning. See Inquiry-guided

Inventory, 322

305–307

learning

Green, D. B., 175–176

Holistic learning, 241

Inquiry-based lab design, 204–205

Gresley, J., 88

Hollabaugh, M., 160, 197

Inquiry-guided learning, 106; defining,

Group learning: accountability in, 158–160;

Homework, 219–220

175–176; effectiveness of, 176–177;

ad hoc group, 161;

Honor code, 87–88

JiTT, 179; modes of inquiry, 178;

advantages/disadvantages of, 106,

Host, T. R., 298–299

objects of inquiry, 177–178;

156–157; collaborative social skills,

Hoyt, D. P., 105

project-based learning, 179

161–162; common terms for, 155–156;

Hsu, L., 90

Institutional honor code, 88

composition of group, 160, 198;

Huber, M. T., 326

Institutional Review Board (IRB), 279

duration of group, 160–161;

Hudspith, B., 175

Instructional center, 331

face-to-face interaction in classroom,

Human Bingo, 49

Instructional technology. See Technology,

161; features of, 158–162; feedback and,

Hupp, J. M., 88

instructional

162; females and, 160; freeloaders,

Hurt, P. K., 231

Interactive lecture, 117–122; attention span

159–160; grading, 159, 160, 162–163;

Hypothetical questions, 141

limits, 117; benefits of, 121–122;

group investigation strategy, 164; group

student-active break ideas, 117–120;

test strategy, 165; instructor role in,

I

surveying student responses, 120–121

157–158; interdependence of, 158;

Interactive lecture teaching method, 106,

Jigsaw strategy, 164; learning challenge

Icebreakers, on first day of class: social,

198, 202

of, 161; learning strategies, 164–165;

48–49; subject matter, 49–50

International center, 331

numbered heads together strategy, 164,

Illustration words, 216

International Simulation and Gaming Research

221; order, maintaining, 163; pairs

Incivility, classroom: argumentative

Yearbook, The, 150

check strategy, 164; peer performance

questions, 80–81; arriving late/leaving

Internet Archive, 263

evaluation, 159; progress reports, 163;

early, 80; asking wheedling questions,

Intrinsic motivator, 51

quantitative reasoning/problem solving,

80; assistance for, 82; cheating, 80;

Intuitive vs. sensing learning, 235–236

197–198; as real-world preparation, 165;

classroom conduct contract, 75; coming

role assignments, individual, 163; in

to class unprepared, 80; computer use

J

science education, 202; self-assessments,

for nonclass purpose, 81; cutting classes,

161–162; send-a-problem strategy, 165,

82; defining incivility, 71–72;

Janik, A., 223

221; size of group, 160, 198; STAD

demanding grade change, 81; disrespect

Jenkins, H., 175

(student teams-achievement divisions)

in general, 82; dominating discussion,

Jigsaw, 164

strategy, 164, 221; structured/academic

80; extensions/missing assignments, 82;

Johnson, D. W., 156

controversy strategy, 164, 221; student

increase in, 72–73; loaded questions, 81;

Johnson, R. T., 156

role in, 157; talking chips strategy,

packing up early, 79–80; questions

Johnston, K. M., 322

164–165; T.A.P.P.S. (talking aloud paired

already answered, 80; responding to,

Johnston, S., 120

problem solving) strategy, 164, 221;

79–82; student bill of rights, 75; on

Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 269

team contracts, 160; think-pair-share

syllabus, 35; talking in class, 79. See also

Journaling, 132, 169, 216, 266, 278

strategy, 164; “three before me” rule,

Incivility, classroom, preventing

Junco, R., 256

163; time limits/deadlines, 163; tips for

Incivility, classroom, preventing, 73–79;

Just-in-time blogging, 267

managing, 162–163

appropriate emotions, 78;

Just-in-time teaching (JiTT), 41, 106, 176,

Grunert, J., 37

authority/approachability balance,

190, 202, 220, 259

Grunert O’Brien, J., 33

73–74; body skills, 77–78; curbing

Guided inquiry. See Inquiry-guided

lecture time, 78; distracting behavior

K

learning

reduction, 78; eye contact, 78; female

Kalish, A., 117

instructors, 75; modeling correct

Katsberg, S. S., 322

H

behavior, 76–77; rewarding civil

Keith, R., 193–194

Hall, E., 229

behavior, 76; setting ground rules,

Kennedy, F., 158

Haney, W., 87

75–76; showing you care, 74–75; visual

Key words, 123, 124, 168, 217, 245, 246,

Harb, J. N., 231

aids and props for, 78; voice skills, 77,

255, 261, 331

Heller, P., 160, 193–194, 197, 198

78–79

Kiewra, K. A., 123, 250

Hertel, J. P., 150

In-class performance, and copyright, 66–67

Kinesthetic learning, 233–234

Hewitt, N. M., 200

Inclusive instruction, 13–14

Knowledge, defining, 6, 25

Higdon, J., 267

Independent knowing, 8, 9 t

Kodani, C. H., 120

Higher-order thinking, 161, 176, 286

Index of Learning Styles, 234–236

Kolb, D. A., 231

History-based discipline, writing in, 226

Inductive holistic grading, 305

Kolb’s learning styles model and

Hobson, E. H., 52

Inkshedding, 168

experiential learning theory, 230–232;

Index

371

abstract conceptualization (AC) mode,

113–114; body, 115; conclusion, 116;

Millis, B. J., 148

230, 231; accommodators, 231; active

delivering, 116–117; interactive lecture,

Mills, C., 232–234

experimentation (AE) mode, 230, 231;

117–122; introduction, 115; lecture

Milwaukee Center for International

assimilators, 231, 232; concrete

notes, 116; note-taking by students,

Education, 264

experience (CE) mode, 230, 231;

122–125; organizational outline,

Mind dump, 221

convergers, 231, 232; derived learning

115–116; outcomes for class period,

Mind map, 217–218, 245–248; example of,

styles, 231; divergers, 231; learning

114; preparation, 114–116; in science

246 f , 247 f ; primary idea in, 245, 246; cycle, 230–231; reflective observation

education, 200

secondary idea in, 245–246

(RO) mode, 230, 231

Lecture/lab course format, 105

Minicase, 106, 183, 286

Krathwohl, D. R. See Anderson and

Lecture-related software,

Minilecture, 115, 118–120, 124, 148, 203,

Krathwohl’s hybrid taxonomy

260–262

217–218

Kristensen, E., 72

Lee, V. S., 175–176, 178

Missed/late exams/assignments, for syllabus,

Legal policy, on syllabus, 36–37

35

L

Letters home exercise, 170

Mnemonic device, 232

Lewes, D., 53, 57

Lab reports, grading, 309–310

Mock test, 171

Library, 330

Laboratory safety policy, for syllabus, 35

‘‘Momentum” questions, 141–142

Langer, J. A., 225

Light, R. J., 156

MOO (multiple-user object-oriented

Link rot, 264

Laptops in classroom, 264–266

environment), 260

Linking and extension questions,

Larkin, J. H., 241

Moodle, 257

141–142

Learner-centered classroom assessment

Moore, S., 267

Lisle, L., 91

techniques, 274

Mosley, D., 229

Learning goal orientation, 54

Listen, recall, and ask; then pair, compare,

Motion Picture Licensing Corporation,

and answer, 119

Learning log, 169–170

67

Literature, writing in, 226–227

Learning management system, 68, 86,

Motivating, defining, 51

257–260; chatroom, 260; class email,

Motivating students: behaviorist theory on,

M

259; conferencing software, 260;

53; equity influence on, 58–59;

discussion board, 260; MOOs, 260;

Maeroff, G. I., 326

expectancy of goal achievement, 54–55;

online preclass quiz, 259; posting course

Marsh, H. W., 319

goal orientation, 53–54; present

material, 258–259; test tools, 86

Marzano, R. J., 240

knowledge about, 52; relative value of

Learning objects, Web, 263–264

Maslow, A., 104

goal, 54; strategies for, 55–58

Learning outcomes: defining, 18; general

Mastrodicasa, J., 256

Motivator: extrinsic, 51, 52; intrinsic, 51,

types of, 20 e

Matching test items, 285–286

52

Learning principles, 4–5

Matrices, 250 t, 275

Muddiest point, 274, 275–276

Learning style: abstract conceptualization

Mazur, E., 119, 155, 202

Multicultural and racial/ethnic cultural

(AC) mode, 230, 231; accommodators,

McKeachie’s categories, 140–141;

center, 331

231; active experimentation (AE) mode,

comparative questions, 140; connective

Multimedia research sites, 263

230, 231; active vs. reflective, 234–235;

and causal effect questions, 140–141;

Multiple choice test items, 286–289

assimilators, 231, 232; auditory, 232;

critical questions, 141; evaluative

Multiple intelligences, 229

concrete experience (CE) mode, 230,

questions, 140

Multiple true-false test items, 289–290

231; convergers, 231, 232; derived

Mealy, D. L., 298–299

Multiple-choice item task, 118–119

learning styles, 231; divergers, 231;

Mechanics, grading, 310–311

Multiple-choice questions, 202, 286

Felder and Silverman’s Index of

Mediating outcomes, 24

MySpace, 268

Learning Styles, 234–236; Fleming and

Medical emergency, in science lab,

Mills’s sensory-based typology, 232–234;

206–207

N

intuitive vs. sensing, 235–236;

Memory matrix, 275

kinesthetic, 233–234; Kolb’s model,

Memory tapes, 232

National Science Foundation Internet

230–232; learning cycle, 230–231;

Mentoring relationship, faculty/teaching

Library, 263

multisensory/multimethod teaching,

assistant, 98–100

Nelson, C., 10, 227

237; parallels across models, 236–237;

MERLOT (Multimedia Educational

NET generation, 11

read/write, 232; reflective observation

Resource for Learning and Online

New York Library Digital Collections, 263

(RO) mode, 230, 231; sequential vs.

Teaching), 263

NeXt generation, 11

global, 236; verbal vs. visual, 235; visual, Metacognition, 4, 10, 201

Nilson, L. B., 38, 50, 74, 75, 79, 158, 171,

233

Microformats, 268

172, 219, 220, 239, 247, 263, 264–265,

Learning-centered syllabus, 33, 37

Middendorf, J., 117

264–266, 279, 280, 318

Lecture-based course format, 106;

Millennial generation, 11–13

Ning, 268

advantages/disadvantages of, 105,

Milliron, V., 87

Norm-referenced grading, 58

372

INDEX

Note-taking, by students, 122–125; as

reading assignments, 29; sequencing

conference, 147; structured controversy,

interfering with learning/recall, 125;

outcomes, 21, 24–25, 26; social learning

146; symposium, 147; town meeting,

learning aids for, 124–125; motivation

outcomes, 19, 20 e; ultimate outcomes,

146

for, 122–123; note-taking systems,

24; writing outcomes, 18–19

Presentation software, 260–261

123–124

Overall, J. U., 319

Preskill, S., 130–131

Notre Dame, 263

Overall composite rating (OCR), 327

Press conference, 147

Novak, G. M., 179, 244

Overhead/document projector, 255–256

Prince, M., 176

Numbered heads together, 164, 221

Prior knowledge, 6

Nurrenbern, S., 194

P

Prisoner’s Dilemma, 149

Nyquist, J., 96

Private Universe, A (Schneps & Sadler), 7

Pair, compare, and ask, 118

Problem posting, 49–50

Pair and compare, 118

O

Pair/group and discuss, 119–120

Problem-based learning (PBL), 106;

assessment of projects, 188–189; basic

OAuth, 268

Pair/group and review, 120, 297

Odom, J., 175–176, 205

Pair/group graphic, 119

steps in, 187–188; characteristics of

good problems, 189; creativity in, 191;

Office hours: encouragement tips, 91;

Pairs check, 164

effectiveness of, 189–190; experiential

location of, 90; scheduling, 90; student

Panel discussion, 146–147

preparation for, 91–92; student-active

Paper/project prospectus, 276

potential of PBL, 188; locating good

problems, 189; student view on,

tutoring, 92; students in academic

Pattern recognition, 6, 8, 25, 138, 241, 242

190–191

trouble, 92; students in emotional

Patterson, E. T., 179

Problems-remedies-prevention debriefing

trouble, 92–93; supplementing with

Peer feedback, 106, 171–172, 196–197

formula, 184

course center, 90

Peer instruction, 155

One-minute paper, 168–169, 274

Peer performance evaluation, 159

Procedural learning, 275

Process worksheet, 177, 195–196

One-sentence summary, 169

Peer tutoring, 155

Processing style. See Learning style

Online Books Page, 263

Perera, S., 105

Online classes, and cheating, 87

Performance goal orientation, 53–54

Programmed-answer questions, 143

Progressive behaviorist method, 57

Online course management system, 40

Performance-avoidance goals, 52

Online “living syllabus,” 39–40

Periodic free-recall, 118

Project prospectus, 276

Project-based learning, 106, 179

Online preclass quiz, 259

Perrin, B. M., 319

Psychological center, 333

Online/electronic materials, and copyright,

Perrine, R. M., 91

68–69

Perry, W. G., 224, 226

Psychomotor learning outcomes, 19, 20 e

Psychomotor skills, 19

Open Learning Initiative, 263

Perry’s theory of student development, 8,

Public domain, and copyright, 65

Open questions, 141

9 t–10; commitment, 9 t–10; duality, 9 t; Punctuated lecture, 277

OpenCourseWare, 263

multiplicity, 9 t, 10; relativism, 9 t

Put-down questions, 143

OpenID, 268

Pickering, M., 194

OpenSocial, 268

Plagiarism, 64; defining, 83; detecting, 85,

Q

OpenSource, 268

87; prevalence of, 83

Oral performances, 221

Playground questions, 142

Quantitative reasoning and problem solving:

Outcome, parts of, 19

Plug-and-chug, 194, 235

context-rich problems, 197; course

Outcomes map, 8, 27–28; freshman

Podcast, 114, 261–262

modifications for, 198; faulty/careless

seminar example, 28 f ; graduate course

POGIL (process-oriented guided inquiry

problem analysis, 195; group learning

example, 29 f

learning), 202–203, 205

and, 197–198; inaccuracy in reading,

Outcomes-centered course design: affective

Point-counterpoint, 146

194; inaccuracy in thinking, 194–195;

outcomes, 19, 20 e; benefits of, 17–18;

Portfolio: course, 325–326, 328;

lack of perseverance, 195; modeling

Bloom’s and Anderson and Krathwohl’s,

e-portfolio, 261, 264, 291; student,

problem-solving procedures, 195, 198;

25–26; cognitive outcomes, 19, 20 e, 21;

278–279; teaching, 321, 322–325, 326,

peer feedback as routine, 196–197;

course content, 28–29; ethical

328

plug-and-chug tactic, 194, 235; process

outcomes, 19, 20 e; Fink’s categories of

PowerPoint, 260

worksheets for, 195–196; steps in

learning, 20, 26–27; foundational

PQR3

problem solving, 195–196; student

outcomes, 24–25; framework overview,

(preview-question-read-recite-review),

problem-solving problems, 193–195;

25–27; graded assignments/assessments,

215

tutoring, 196, 198; worked examples,

29–31; graded assignments/assessments,

Prégent, R., 29

195

rubric for, 30 t; in-class activities, 30–31;

Presentation format, student, 145–147;

Question shuffle, 297

mediating outcomes, 24;

change-your-mind debate, 146; expert

Questioning techniques, for

outcomes-centered course development,

individuals or teams, 146; panel

discussion/assessment: analytical

28–31; Perry’s and Baxter-Magolda’s,

discussion, 146–147;

convergent questions, 143; Brookfield

26; psychomotor outcomes, 19, 20 e;

point-counterpoint, 146; press

and Preskill’s “momentum” questions,

Index

373

141–142; chameleon questions, 143;

Restatements, using in lecture, 115

Silverman, L. K., 234–236

dead-end questions, 143–144;

Reverse discrimination, 58

Simages, 150

ego-stroking questions, 143; fuzzy

Richardson, J., 90

Simon, H. A., 241

questions, 143; Gale and Andrews’s

Rieke, R., 223

Simulation and Gaming: An Interdisciplinary

“high-mileage” types, 142; guiding

Rodgers, M. L., 309–310

Journal of Theory, Practice and Research,

students up Bloom’s hierarchy, 138–140;

Role playing, 106, 147–148

150

McKeachie’s categories, 140–141; poor

Roy, D., 241

Simulations, 106; debriefing, 151; finding,

questions, 142–144;

RSQC2 (recall, summarize, question,

150; frame, 149; running, 150–151

programmed-answer questions, 143;

connect, and comment), 277

Sixbury, G. R., 319

put-down questions, 143; questioning as

Rubrics: analytical grading, 307–309, 308 t;

Skeletal lecture notes, 124–125

inquiry process, 137–140; questions

graded assignments/assessments, 30 t;

Slatta, R. W., 175–176

good for recitation, 143; quiz show

holistic grading, 305–307; lab report,

Smartboard, 261

questions, 143; shotgun questions, 143;

309–310; for statement of teaching

Smith, D. M., 231

Socratic method, 137–138;

philosophy, 323 t

Smithsonian Institution, 263

student-developed questions, 144;

Social bookmarking tools, 267–268

typologies of discussion questions,

S

Social cognitive model, 54

140–142; working backward from

Sakai, 257

Social learning, 4; outcomes, 19, 20 e

end-of-class outcomes, 138

Sandoe, K., 87

Social networking tools, 268

Quick case study, 119

Sass, E. J., 52

Socratic method, 137–138, 203

Quick thinks, 120

SCALE-UP (student-centered active

Software, lecture-related, 260–262

Quiz show questions, 143

learning environment for undergraduate

Software Publishers Association, 69–70

programs), 202–203, 205

Sokoloff, D., 205

R

Scavenger hunt, 48–49

Solve a problem task, 118

Racial/ethnic cultural center, 331

Schechter, E., 175–176

SQ3R (survey-question-read-recall-review),

Readiness assessment test, 165

Scholarship of teaching and learning, 279

215

Reading ability, correlation with income,

Schönwetter, D. J., 322

Staats, S., 88

213

Science education: facilitating, 201; grading

STAD (student teams-achievement

Reading list, annotated, for syllabus, 34

lab reports, 309–310; importance of,

divisions), 164, 221

Readings, student compliance: nonclass

207; lab experience, 203–205; lab safety

Stalnaker, J. M., 290–291

activities effect on, 212; reading habits

and management, 205–207; lecture

STEM fields, student-active break activities

effect on, 212; reasons for

method in, 200, 202–203; POGIL

in, 122

noncompliance, 211–213; teacher

(process-oriented guided inquiry

Structure, effect on learning, 5–8

workload effect on, 222. See also

learning), 202–203, 205; reasons

Structured/academic controversy, 146, 164,

Readings, student compliance strategies

students dislike/drop out of, 200;

221

Readings, student compliance strategies,

reducing student cognitive load in, 201;

Student bill of rights, 75

213–219; academic reading skills, 214;

SCALE-UP (student-centered active

Student evaluation, of teacher, 316–320;

accountability, 218–221; active recall

learning environment for undergraduate

improving, 319–320; reliability of, 319;

strategy, 214–215; homework

programs), 202–203, 205; writing and,

validity of, 316–319

assignments, 219–220; in-class written

225

Student honor code, 87–88

exercises, 220–221;

Second Life, 269

Student names, leaning and using, 47–48,

marginalia/highlighting/underlining,

Seldin, P., 325

216–217; multi-step strategies, 215; oral

Self-confidence survey, 49, 276–277

75

presentations, 221; preliminary

Self-introductions, on first day of class, 48

Student portfolio, 278–279

exploration of text, 214; promoting

Seminar course format, 105

Student-active break activities: listen, recall,

readings, 218; purpose for reading,

Send-a-problem, 165, 221

and ask; then pair, compare, and answer,

215–216; quizzes, 220; reading loads,

Sequential vs. global learning, 236

119; multiple-choice item task,

218; stop lecturing readings, 214;

Sequential-interactive case, 184

118–119; multiple-choice test item task,

student review of readings, 217–218;

Service-learning, 106, 151–153; defining,

119; pair, compare, and ask, 118; pair

transitions and verbal signals, 216

151; effects of, 151–152; implementing,

and compare, 118; pair/group and

Read/write learning style, 232

152–153

discuss, 119–120; pair/group and

Recitation teaching method, 106

Seventh inning stretch, 120

review, 120; periodic free-recall, 118;

Reflection/reaction paragraph, 118

Sexual harassment, 332

quick case study, 119; quick thinks, 120;

Reflective learning, 275

Seymour, E., 200

reflection/reaction paragraph, 118;

Reflective observation (RO) mode, 230,

Shaffer, L., 221

seventh inning stretch, 120; solve a

231

Shodor Interactive, 264

problem task, 118

Reflective writing, 218

Shotgun questions, 143

Student-active method. See Group learning

374

INDEX

Student-peer feedback teaching method,

Teacher-directed classroom assessment

multimedia research sites, 263; online

106

techniques, 274

preclass quizzes, 259;

Studio course, 202

Teaching, assessing effectiveness of:

overhead/document projectors,

Study aids, on syllabus, 36

comprehensive approaches, 326–327;

255–256; podcasts and vodcasts,

Summary and synthesis questions, 142

course portfolio for, 325–326; defining

261–262; posting course material,

Summative assessment: advantages of, 294;

effectiveness, 315; peer/administrative/

258–259; presentation software,

completion (fill-in-blank), 283–284;

self-evaluation for, 320–321; problems

260–261; productive uses for, 264–265;

essay questions/writing assignments,

with measuring student learning,

social bookmarking tools, 267–268;

290–294; formative assessment vs., 281;

315–316; student evaluation for,

social networking tools, 268; teaching

matching, 285–286; multiple choice,

316–320; teaching philosophy statement

and learning tools, 262–263; virtual

286–289; multiple true-false, 289–290;

role in, 321–322; teaching portfolio for,

worlds, 268–269; Web 2.0 tools,

objective test items, 283–290; scenarios,

322, 324–325

266–269; Web resources, 262–264;

286–288; true/false, 284–285. See also

Teaching, purpose of, 17

wikis, 267

Summative assessment, grading;

Teaching and learning tools, Web, 262–263

Technology center, 330–331

Summative assessment, testing guidelines

Teaching assistant (TA), 5; classroom

Technology Harmonization and Education

Summative assessment, grading: analytical

incivility and, 74; development using

Act, 68

grading, 307–309, 308 t; atomistic

case method, 182; office hours and, 89,

Television programming, and copyright,

grading, 304; contract grading, 311;

90; science education and, 203, 205. See

67–68

criterion-referenced grading, 302–303;

also Course coordination, between

Terry, R. E., 231

feedback and, 313; grading constructed

faculty/teaching assistant

Test blueprint, 296

responses and papers, 304–309; grading

Teaching Goals Inventory, 322

Tests, preparing students for: advantages of,

mechanics, 310–311; holistic grading,

Teaching methods, matching with learning

299; anxiety-reduction measures,

304–307; lab reports, 309–310;

outcomes: to achieve different learning

298–299; definitions of key test terms,

limitations of grading, 314;

outcomes, 107 t–108; consequences of

297–298; help sessions or course clinics,

norm-referenced grading, 302;

choice, 112; perfect fit example, 104 f ;

297; reading/review strategies, 296;

outcomes grading, 311–312; qualities of

teaching moves for, 108 e–111 e; teaching review sessions, 297; review sheets, 296;

grading system, 303–304; returning

toolbox, 104–111

study groups, 296; test preparation

student work, 312–313

Teaching moves, 108; for Bloom’s cognitive

measures, 295–298. See also Summative

Summative assessment, testing guidelines,

operations, 108 e–111 e

assessment

281–283; clarity and content, peer

Teaching Perspectives Inventory (TPI), 322

Think-pair-share, 164

evaluation of, 282–283; compose

Teaching philosophy, 36, 321–322

Thornton, R., 205

questions after material covered, 282;

Teaching portfolio, 321, 322–325, 326, 328

3R (read-recite-review), 214–215, 296

instructions for tests, 282; item analysis

Teaching principles, 5; for diverse students,

‘‘Three before me” rule, 163

of new objective items, 283; outcomes,

14; role of structure in learning, 7–8

Tobias, S., 200

281–282; proofread test form for errors,

Teaching toolbox, 104–111

Topaz, C., 267

283; test early and often, 282; warm-up

Teaching/faculty development/instructional

Toulmin, S., 223

questions, 282

development center, 330

Town meeting, 146

Support/resources, institutional: for

Team development, stages in, 157–158. See

Transitional knowing, 8, 9 t

faculty/students/staff, 329–332; for

also Group learning

Treisman, P. U., 156

students, 332–333

Team learning. See Group learning

True/false test items, 284–285

Syllabus: appropriate items for, 33–37;

Technical writing, 227–228; accuracy and

Tucker, D. L., 91

computer use in classroom policy, 81;

timeliness, 228; evidence to justify

Tutoring, 196, 198

defining, 33; getting students to read,

purpose, 228; format, 228; language and

Twitter, 268

40–41, 46; graphic syllabus, 37–39, 38 f ;

style, 228; purpose, 228; specific

Typologies, of discussion questions,

late work penalties, 82;

audience pitch, 227–228

140–142; brainstorming, 142;

learning-centered, 33; office hours, 91;

Technology, instructional: blogs, 266–267;

Brookfield and Preskill’s “momentum”

online “living syllabus,” 39–40

board, 253–255; chatrooms, 260;

questions, 141–142; cause-and-effect,

Symposium, 147

choosing, 256–257; class email, 259;

141; clarification, 141; comparative, 140;

conferencing software, 260; discussion

connective and causal effect, 140–141;

T

boards, 260; flip chart, 255; future of,

critical, 141; evaluative, 140; focal, 142;

Tablet PC, 261, 265

269; laptops in classroom, 264–266;

Gale and Andrews’s “high-mileage”

Talking chips, 164–165

learning management systems, 68, 86,

types, 142; hypothetical, 141; linking

T.A.P.P.S. (talking aloud paired problem

257–260; learning objects, 263–264;

and extension, 141–142; McKeachie’s

solving), 164, 221

lecture-related software, 260–262; link

categories, 140–141; more evidence

TEACH Act, 68

rot, 264; low-tech tools, 253–256;

request, 141; open, 141; playground,

Teacher-centered learning, 4

mobile devices, 266; MOOs, 260;

142; summary and synthesis, 142

Index

375

U

Weaver, B. E., 264–265

one-minute paper, 168–169, 274;

Web 2.0 tools, 266–269; blogs, 266–267;

one-sentence summary, 169; outcomes,

Ultimate outcomes, 24

social bookmarking tools, 267–268;

18–19; peer feedback, 171–172;

Uncertainties, in knowledge base, 10

social networking tools, 268; virtual

reflective, 218; student reading

Undergraduate student body profile, 3–4

worlds, 268–269; wikis, 267

compliance and, 220–221;

University of Wisconsin, 264

Web resources, 262–264; learning objects,

writing-to-learn exercises,

V

263–264; link rot, 264; multimedia

168–172

research sites, 263; teaching and learning

Writing, in own discipline: commonalities

VARK model, 232–234

tools, 262–263

among disciplines, 223–224;

Venn diagram, 248–249 f

Weblog. See Blogs

metacognitive differences among

Verbal learning, 235

Wieman, C., 202

disciplines, 224–227; metacognitive

Virtual worlds, 268–269

Wikis, 267

model, 224; metacognitive model

Visual argument theory, 240–241

Williamson, K. J., 231

discovery exercise, 227; technical

Visual learning, 233, 235

Wilson, M. A., 40

writing, 227–228

Visuals, 8; benefits of, 250–251; cognitive

Wisconsin Online Resource Center, 264

Writing and speaking teaching method, 106

theory on, 241–242; concept circle

Wolcott, S., 224

Writing-across-the-curriculum, 223–224

diagram, 248–250, 249 f ; concept map,

Women’s center, 331

Writing/communication program,

243–245, 244 f ; copyright and, 66;

Wood, M., 120

332–333

dual-coding theory on, 240; matrices,

Worked examples, 177, 195

Writing-to-learn exercises, 220

250 t, 275; mind map, 245–248,

World Lecture Hall, 263

Wueste, D. E., 88

246 f –247 f ; for science education, 201; Writing: advantages of informal, 167;

Wulff, D., 96

types of, 115, 242–250; visual argument

concept assignment, 168; dialectical

theory, 240–241

notes, 170, 220; directed paraphrasing,

Y

Vodcast, 261–262

170, 274; freewrites, 168, 218;

Yale University, 301

inkshedding activity, 168; journals, 169;

W

YouTube, 257, 268

learning logs, 169–170;

Wallace, H., 88

letters/memos/notes/electronic posts,

Z

Wandersee, J., 250

170–171; mock tests, 171; muddiest

Warmath, W. H., Jr., 160

point, 274; multiple purposes of, 172;

Zeilik, M., 245

TEACHING AT ITS BEST

NILSON

This third edition of the best-selling handbook offers faculty at all levels an essential toolbox of hundreds of practical teaching techniques, formats, classroom activities, and exercises, all of which can be implemented immediately. This thoroughly revised edition includes the newest portrait of the Millennial student; current research from cognitive psychology; a focus on outcomes maps; the latest legal options on copyright issues; and how to best use new technology including wikis, blogs, TEACHING

podcasts, vodcasts, and clickers. Entirely new chapters include subjects such as matching teaching methods with learning outcomes, inquiry-guided learning, and using visuals to teach, and new sections address Felder and Silverman’s Index of Learning Styles, SCALE-UP classrooms, multiple true-false test items, and much more.

Praise for the Third Edition of Teaching at Its Best

“ Everyone—veterans as well as novices—will profi t from reading Teaching at Its Best, for it provides A

TEACHING

both theory and practical suggestions for handling all of the problems one encounters in teaching classes varying in size, ability, and motivation.”

—

WILBERT MCKEACHIE, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, and coauthor, T ITS BEST

McKeachie’s Teaching Tips

“ This new edition of Dr. Nilson’s book, with its completely updated material and several new topics, is an even more powerful collection of ideas and tools than the last. What a great resource, especially for beginning teachers but also for us veterans!”

AT ITS BEST

—L. DEE FINK, author, Creating Signifi cant Learning Experiences

“ This third edition of Teaching at Its Best is successful at weaving the latest research on teaching and learning into what was already a thorough exploration of each topic. New information on how we learn, how students develop, and innovations in instructional strategies complement the solid foundation established in the fi rst two editions.”

—

MARILLA D. SVINICKI, Department of Psychology, The University of Texas, Austin, EDITION

and coauthor, McKeachie’s Teaching Tips

THIRD

A Research-Based Resource

T H E A U T H O R

LINDA B. NILSON is the founding director of the Offi ce of Teaching Effectiveness and Innovation at

{ for College Instructors }

Clemson University. She is the author of The Graphic Syllabus and the Outcomes Map: Communicating Your Course from Jossey-Bass.

T H I R D E D I T I O N

EDUCATION/HIGHER

www.josseybass.com

LINDA B. NILSON

Cover design by Michael Cook

Document Outline

- Teaching at Its Best, Third Edition: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors

- CONTENTS

- THE AUTHOR

- PREFACE

- PART 1: LAYING THE GROUNDWORK FOR STUDENT LEARNING

- Chapter 1: Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

- YOUR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT BODY PROFILE

- HOW PEOPLE LEARN

- HOW STRUCTURE INCREASES LEARNING

- THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERGRADUATES

- ENCOURAGING COGNITIVE GROWTH

- TEACHING THE MILLENNIAL GENERATION

- THE ADULT LEARNER

- INCLUSIVE INSTRUCTING

- THE CHALLENGE

- Chapter 2: Outcomes-Centered Course Design

- WHY OUTCOMES-CENTERED COURSE DESIGN?

- WRITING OUTCOMES

- TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

- TYPES OF COGNITIVE OUTCOMES

- DESIGNING THE LEARNING PROCESS

- HELPFUL FRAMEWORKS FOR DESIGNING A COURSE

- SHOWING STUDENTS THEIR LEARNING PROCESS

- OUTCOMES-CENTERED COURSE DEVELOPMENT

- Chapter 3: The Complete Syllabus

- APPROPRIATE SYLLABUS ITEMS

- THE GRAPHIC SYLLABUS

- THE ONLINE ‘‘LIVING SYLLABUS’’

- GETTING STUDENTS TO READ YOUR SYLLABUS

- THE EVOLVING SYLLABUS

- Chapter 4: Your First Day of Class

- BEFORE THE FIRST CLASS

- FIRST IMPRESSIONS

- EXCHANGING INFORMATION

- SOCIAL ICEBREAKERS: GETTING TO KNOW YOU

- SUBJECT MATTER ICEBREAKERS

- DRAWING CLASS TO A CLOSE

- Chapter 5: Motivating Your Students

- WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

- CREDIBLE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

- STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS

- EQUITY IN THE CLASSROOM

- PART 2: MANAGING YOUR COURSES

- Chapter 6: Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

- WHERE COPYRIGHT DOES AND DOES NOT APPLY

- COMMON COPYRIGHT MISCONCEPTIONS

- FREE USE: FAIR USE, FACTS, AND PUBLIC DOMAIN

- PRINTED TEXT

- VISUAL MATERIALS

- IN-CLASS PERFORMANCES

- RECORDING BROADCAST PROGRAMMING

- ONLINE/ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DISTANCE LEARNING

- OBTAINING PERMISSION OR A LICENSE

- HOW COPYRIGHT VIOLATIONS ARE ACTUALLY HANDLED

- FOR FURTHER AND FUTURE REFERENCE

- Chapter 7: Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

- WHAT IS INCIVILITY?

- WHY THE INCREASE?

- PREVENTING INCIVILITY: YOUR CLASSROOM PERSONA

- RESPONDING TO INCIVILITY

- SEEKING ASSISTANCE

- Chapter 8: Preserving Academic Integrity

- HOW PREVALENT IS CHEATING?

- WHO CHEATS, AND WHY?

- DETECTING CHEATING

- PREVENTING CHEATING

- HONOR CODES

- CHANGING STUDENT VALUES

- Chapter 9: Making the Most of Office Hours

- GETTING STUDENTS TO SEE YOU

- MAKING THE TIME PRODUCTIVE

- STUDENT-ACTIVE TUTORING

- STUDENTS IN ACADEMIC OR EMOTIONAL TROUBLE

- Chapter 10: Course Coordination Between Faculty and Teaching Assistants

- BEFORE THE TERM: COURSE REVIEW AND ROLE SPECIFICATIONS

- DURING THE TERM: REGULAR MEETINGS AND TEACHING FEEDBACK

- EXTENDING MANAGING TO MENTORING

- PART 3: CHOOSING AND USING THE RIGHT TOOLS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

- Chapter 11: Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

- TYPES OF TOOLS

- DANGEROUS KNOWLEDGE?

- Chapter 12: Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

- PURPOSE: TO LECTURE OR NOT TO LECTURE?

- PREPARING AN EFFECTIVE LECTURE

- DELIVERING AN EFFECTIVE LECTURE

- INCORPORATING STUDENT-ACTIVE BREAKS: THE INTERACTIVE LECTURE

- TEACHING STUDENTS TO TAKE GOOD NOTES

- MAKING THE LECTURE EFFECTIVE FOR EVERYONE

- Chapter 13: Leading Effective Discussions

- WHEN TO CHOOSE DISCUSSION

- HOW TO SET THE STAGE FOR DISCUSSION

- HOW TO MAXIMIZE PARTICIPATION THROUGH SKILLFUL DISCUSSION MANAGEMENT

- Chapter 14: Questioning Techniques for Discussion and Assessment

- QUESTIONING AS A PROCESS OF INQUIRY

- TYPOLOGIES OF GOOD DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

- POOR QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES

- TURNING THE TABLES

- Chapter 15: Experiential Learning Activities

- STUDENT PRESENTATION FORMATS

- ROLE PLAYING

- SIMULATIONS AND GAMES

- SERVICE-LEARNING: THE REAL THING

- Chapter 16: Learning in Groups

- A GROUP BY ANY OTHER NAME. . .

- THE CASE FOR GROUP WORK

- CHANGING METHODS, CHANGING ROLES

- THE SETUP AND MANAGEMENT OF STUDENT GROUPS

- MANAGEMENT TIPS

- TRIED-AND-TRUE GROUP LEARNING STRATEGIES

- PREPARING STUDENTS FOR LIFE

- Chapter 17: Writing-to-Learn Activities and Assignments

- FREEWRITES

- THE ONE-MINUTE PAPER

- JOURNALS

- ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARIES

- LEARNING LOGS

- DIALECTICAL NOTES

- DIRECTED PARAPHRASING

- LETTERS, MEMOS, NOTES, AND ELECTRONIC POSTS

- MOCK TESTS

- DRAFTS FOR PEER FEEDBACK

- MULTIPLE PURPOSES

- PART 4: MORE TOOLS

- Chapter 18: Inquiry-Guided Learning

- DEFINITIONS OF INQUIRY-GUIDED LEARNING

- THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INQUIRY-GUIDED LEARNING

- OBJECTS AND MODES OF INQUIRY

- VARIATIONS OF INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING

- Chapter 19: The Case Method

- THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CASE METHOD

- THE APPROPRIATE SUBJECT MATTER

- WHAT MAKES A GOOD CASE

- TYPES OF CASES

- DEBRIEFING CASES

- A POSTSCRIPT FOR PIONEERS

- Chapter 20: Problem-Based Learning

- HOW PBL WORKS

- GOOD PBL PROBLEMS AND WHERE TO FIND THEM

- THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PBL

- WHAT STUDENTS THINK

- KUDOS FOR CREATIVITY

- Chapter 21: Quantitative Reasoning and Problem Solving

- UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS’ PROBLEMS WITH PROBLEMS

- MODELING EXPERT REASONING

- TEACHING THE STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

- TUTORING STUDENTS OUT OF BAD HABITS

- ROUTINIZING PEER FEEDBACK

- MAKING PROBLEMS MORE REAL AND CHALLENGING

- USING THE POWER OF GROUP LEARNING

- ACCOMMODATING NEW METHODS TO TRADITIONAL SETTINGS

- Chapter 22: Problem Solving in the Sciences

- WHERE SCIENCE EDUCATION FALLS SHORT

- HOW TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN SCIENCE: GENERAL ADVICE

- HOW THE LECTURE CAN BE MADE INTO A MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE

- HOW THE LAB CAN BE MADE INTO A MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE

- THE ESSENTIALS OF LAB SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

- WHY SCIENCE EDUCATION IS SO IMPORTANT

- PART 5: MAKING LEARNING EASIER

- Chapter 23: Getting Students to Do the Readings

- WHY STUDENTS DON’T DO THE READINGS

- HOW WE CAN EQUIP AND INDUCE STUDENTS TO DO THE READINGS

- SPECIFIC TOOLS FOR HOLDING STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE

- MANAGING YOUR WORKLOAD

- Chapter 24: Teaching Your Students to Think and Write in Your Discipline

- CROSS-DISCIPLINARY COMMONALITIES

- TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH THE DISCIPLINE’S METACOGNITIVE MODEL

- METACOGNITIVE DIFFERENCES AMONG DISCIPLINES

- MAKING STUDENTS BETTER THINKERS AND WRITERS

- TEACHING STUDENTS TO WRITE FOR THEIR FUTURES

- THE MANY WORLDS OF WRITING

- Chapter 25: Accommodating Different Learning Styles

- KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES MODEL AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

- FLEMING AND MILLS’S SENSORY-BASED LEARNING STYLE TYPOLOGY

- FELDER AND SILVERMAN’S INDEX OF LEARNING STYLES

- PARALLELS ACROSS LEARNING STYLE MODELS

- MULTISENSORY, MULTIMETHOD TEACHING: MOST EFFECTIVE FOR ALL

- Chapter 26: Using Visuals to Teach

- WAYS THAT VISUALS ENHANCE LEARNING

- TYPES OF VISUALS FOR LEARNING

- THE FUTURE OF VISUALS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

- Chapter 27: Using Instructional Technology Wisely

- RELIABLE LOW-TECH TOOLS FOR THE CLASSROOM

- THE CHOICE OF HIGH-TECH ALTERNATIVES

- LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

- LECTURE-RELATED SOFTWARE

- WEB RESOURCES

- LAPTOPS IN THE WIRELESS CLASSROOM

- WEB 2.0 TOOLS

- LOOKING AHEAD

- PART 6: ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES

- Chapter 28: Assessing Student Learning in Progress

- CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

- FORMATIVE FEEDBACK

- STUDENT PORTFOLIOS

- EXTENDING CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TO CLASSROOM RESEARCH AND THE SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

- Chapter 29: Constructing Summative Assessments

- GENERAL TESTING GUIDELINES

- OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS

- CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE INSTRUMENTS: ESSAY QUESTIONS AND WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

- TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS: THE ULTIMATE TEACHING EVALUATIONS

- Chapter 30: Preparing Students for Tests

- TEST PREPARATION MEASURES

- ANXIETY-REDUCTION MEASURES

- WHAT THE EFFORT IS WORTH

- Chapter 31: Grading Summative Assessments

- THE MEANING OF GRADES

- SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS AND GRADING SYSTEMS

- THE QUALITIES OF A SOUND GRADING SYSTEM

- GRADING CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES AND PAPERS

- GRADING LAB REPORTS

- HOW TO GRADE MECHANICS QUICKLY WHILE ENSURING STUDENTS LEARN THEM

- OUTCOME-BASED GRADING

- RETURNING STUDENTS’ WORK

- HELPING STUDENTS USE YOUR FEEDBACK TO IMPROVE

- THE REAL MEANING AND LIMITS OF GRADES

- Chapter 32: Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

- DEFINING AND MEASURING TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

- STUDENT EVALUATIONS

- PEER, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND SELF-EVALUATIONS

- DOCUMENTING YOUR EFFECTIVENESS

- COMPREHENSIVE APPROACHES TO FACULTY EVALUATION

- COMPLEX BEYOND MEASURE

- APPENDIX: Instructional Support and Resources at Your Institution

- REFERENCES

- INDEX

Table of Contents

Teaching at Its Best, Third Edition: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors

CONTENTS

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

PART 1: LAYING THE GROUNDWORK FOR STUDENT LEARNING

Chapter 1: Understanding Your Students and How They Learn

YOUR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT BODY PROFILE

HOW PEOPLE LEARN

HOW STRUCTURE INCREASES LEARNING

THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERGRADUATES

ENCOURAGING COGNITIVE GROWTH

TEACHING THE MILLENNIAL GENERATION

THE ADULT LEARNER

INCLUSIVE INSTRUCTING

THE CHALLENGE

Chapter 2: Outcomes-Centered Course Design

WHY OUTCOMES-CENTERED COURSE DESIGN?

WRITING OUTCOMES

TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

TYPES OF COGNITIVE OUTCOMES

DESIGNING THE LEARNING PROCESS

HELPFUL FRAMEWORKS FOR DESIGNING A COURSE

SHOWING STUDENTS THEIR LEARNING PROCESS

OUTCOMES-CENTERED COURSE DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 3: The Complete Syllabus

APPROPRIATE SYLLABUS ITEMS

THE GRAPHIC SYLLABUS

THE ONLINE ‘‘LIVING SYLLABUS’’

GETTING STUDENTS TO READ YOUR SYLLABUS

THE EVOLVING SYLLABUS

Chapter 4: Your First Day of Class

BEFORE THE FIRST CLASS

FIRST IMPRESSIONS

EXCHANGING INFORMATION

SOCIAL ICEBREAKERS: GETTING TO KNOW YOU

SUBJECT MATTER ICEBREAKERS

DRAWING CLASS TO A CLOSE

Chapter 5: Motivating Your Students

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

CREDIBLE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS

EQUITY IN THE CLASSROOM

PART 2: MANAGING YOUR COURSES

Chapter 6: Copyright Guidelines for Instructors

WHERE COPYRIGHT DOES AND DOES NOT APPLY

COMMON COPYRIGHT MISCONCEPTIONS

FREE USE: FAIR USE, FACTS, AND PUBLIC DOMAIN

PRINTED TEXT

VISUAL MATERIALS

IN-CLASS PERFORMANCES

RECORDING BROADCAST PROGRAMMING

ONLINE/ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DISTANCE LEARNING

OBTAINING PERMISSION OR A LICENSE

HOW COPYRIGHT VIOLATIONS ARE ACTUALLY HANDLED

FOR FURTHER AND FUTURE REFERENCE

Chapter 7: Preventing and Responding to Classroom Incivility

WHAT IS INCIVILITY?

WHY THE INCREASE?

PREVENTING INCIVILITY: YOUR CLASSROOM PERSONA

RESPONDING TO INCIVILITY

SEEKING ASSISTANCE

Chapter 8: Preserving Academic Integrity

HOW PREVALENT IS CHEATING?

WHO CHEATS, AND WHY?

DETECTING CHEATING

PREVENTING CHEATING

HONOR CODES

CHANGING STUDENT VALUES

Chapter 9: Making the Most of Office Hours

GETTING STUDENTS TO SEE YOU

MAKING THE TIME PRODUCTIVE

STUDENT-ACTIVE TUTORING

STUDENTS IN ACADEMIC OR EMOTIONAL TROUBLE

Chapter 10: Course Coordination Between Faculty and Teaching Assistants

BEFORE THE TERM: COURSE REVIEW AND ROLE SPECIFICATIONS

DURING THE TERM: REGULAR MEETINGS AND TEACHING FEEDBACK

EXTENDING MANAGING TO MENTORING

PART 3: CHOOSING AND USING THE RIGHT TOOLS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Chapter 11: Matching Teaching Methods with Learning Outcomes

TYPES OF TOOLS

DANGEROUS KNOWLEDGE?

Chapter 12: Making the Lecture a Learning Experience

PURPOSE: TO LECTURE OR NOT TO LECTURE?

PREPARING AN EFFECTIVE LECTURE

DELIVERING AN EFFECTIVE LECTURE

INCORPORATING STUDENT-ACTIVE BREAKS: THE INTERACTIVE LECTURE

TEACHING STUDENTS TO TAKE GOOD NOTES

MAKING THE LECTURE EFFECTIVE FOR EVERYONE

Chapter 13: Leading Effective Discussions

WHEN TO CHOOSE DISCUSSION

HOW TO SET THE STAGE FOR DISCUSSION

HOW TO MAXIMIZE PARTICIPATION THROUGH SKILLFUL DISCUSSION MANAGEMENT

Chapter 14: Questioning Techniques for Discussion and Assessment

QUESTIONING AS A PROCESS OF INQUIRY

TYPOLOGIES OF GOOD DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

POOR QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES

TURNING THE TABLES

Chapter 15: Experiential Learning Activities

STUDENT PRESENTATION FORMATS

ROLE PLAYING

SIMULATIONS AND GAMES

SERVICE-LEARNING: THE REAL THING

Chapter 16: Learning in Groups

A GROUP BY ANY OTHER NAME. . .

THE CASE FOR GROUP WORK

CHANGING METHODS, CHANGING ROLES

THE SETUP AND MANAGEMENT OF STUDENT GROUPS

MANAGEMENT TIPS

TRIED-AND-TRUE GROUP LEARNING STRATEGIES

PREPARING STUDENTS FOR LIFE

Chapter 17: Writing-to-Learn Activities and Assignments

FREEWRITES

THE ONE-MINUTE PAPER

JOURNALS

ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARIES

LEARNING LOGS

DIALECTICAL NOTES

DIRECTED PARAPHRASING

LETTERS, MEMOS, NOTES, AND ELECTRONIC POSTS

MOCK TESTS

DRAFTS FOR PEER FEEDBACK

MULTIPLE PURPOSES

PART 4: MORE TOOLS

Chapter 18: Inquiry-Guided Learning

DEFINITIONS OF INQUIRY-GUIDED LEARNING

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INQUIRY-GUIDED LEARNING

OBJECTS AND MODES OF INQUIRY

VARIATIONS OF INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING

Chapter 19: The Case Method

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CASE METHOD

THE APPROPRIATE SUBJECT MATTER

WHAT MAKES A GOOD CASE

TYPES OF CASES

DEBRIEFING CASES

A POSTSCRIPT FOR PIONEERS

Chapter 20: Problem-Based Learning

HOW PBL WORKS

GOOD PBL PROBLEMS AND WHERE TO FIND THEM

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PBL

WHAT STUDENTS THINK

KUDOS FOR CREATIVITY

Chapter 21: Quantitative Reasoning and Problem Solving

UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS’ PROBLEMS WITH PROBLEMS

MODELING EXPERT REASONING

TEACHING THE STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

TUTORING STUDENTS OUT OF BAD HABITS

ROUTINIZING PEER FEEDBACK

MAKING PROBLEMS MORE REAL AND CHALLENGING

USING THE POWER OF GROUP LEARNING

ACCOMMODATING NEW METHODS TO TRADITIONAL SETTINGS

Chapter 22: Problem Solving in the Sciences

WHERE SCIENCE EDUCATION FALLS SHORT

HOW TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN SCIENCE: GENERAL ADVICE

HOW THE LECTURE CAN BE MADE INTO A MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE

HOW THE LAB CAN BE MADE INTO A MEANINGFUL LEARNING EXPERIENCE

THE ESSENTIALS OF LAB SAFETY AND MANAGEMENT

WHY SCIENCE EDUCATION IS SO IMPORTANT

PART 5: MAKING LEARNING EASIER

Chapter 23: Getting Students to Do the Readings

WHY STUDENTS DON’T DO THE READINGS

HOW WE CAN EQUIP AND INDUCE STUDENTS TO DO THE READINGS

SPECIFIC TOOLS FOR HOLDING STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE

MANAGING YOUR WORKLOAD

Chapter 24: Teaching Your Students to Think and Write in Your Discipline

CROSS-DISCIPLINARY COMMONALITIES

TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH THE DISCIPLINE’S METACOGNITIVE MODEL

METACOGNITIVE DIFFERENCES AMONG DISCIPLINES

MAKING STUDENTS BETTER THINKERS AND WRITERS

TEACHING STUDENTS TO WRITE FOR THEIR FUTURES

THE MANY WORLDS OF WRITING

Chapter 25: Accommodating Different Learning Styles

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES MODEL AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

FLEMING AND MILLS’S SENSORY-BASED LEARNING STYLE TYPOLOGY

FELDER AND SILVERMAN’S INDEX OF LEARNING STYLES

PARALLELS ACROSS LEARNING STYLE MODELS

MULTISENSORY, MULTIMETHOD TEACHING: MOST EFFECTIVE FOR ALL

Chapter 26: Using Visuals to Teach

WAYS THAT VISUALS ENHANCE LEARNING

TYPES OF VISUALS FOR LEARNING

THE FUTURE OF VISUALS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Chapter 27: Using Instructional Technology Wisely

RELIABLE LOW-TECH TOOLS FOR THE CLASSROOM

THE CHOICE OF HIGH-TECH ALTERNATIVES

LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

LECTURE-RELATED SOFTWARE

WEB RESOURCES

LAPTOPS IN THE WIRELESS CLASSROOM

WEB 2.0 TOOLS

LOOKING AHEAD

PART 6: ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES

Chapter 28: Assessing Student Learning in Progress

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

FORMATIVE FEEDBACK

STUDENT PORTFOLIOS

EXTENDING CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TO CLASSROOM RESEARCH AND THE SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Chapter 29: Constructing Summative Assessments

GENERAL TESTING GUIDELINES

OBJECTIVE TEST ITEMS

CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE INSTRUMENTS: ESSAY QUESTIONS AND WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS: THE ULTIMATE TEACHING EVALUATIONS

Chapter 30: Preparing Students for Tests

TEST PREPARATION MEASURES

ANXIETY-REDUCTION MEASURES

WHAT THE EFFORT IS WORTH

Chapter 31: Grading Summative Assessments

THE MEANING OF GRADES

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS AND GRADING SYSTEMS

THE QUALITIES OF A SOUND GRADING SYSTEM

GRADING CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES AND PAPERS

GRADING LAB REPORTS

HOW TO GRADE MECHANICS QUICKLY WHILE ENSURING STUDENTS LEARN THEM

OUTCOME-BASED GRADING

RETURNING STUDENTS’ WORK

HELPING STUDENTS USE YOUR FEEDBACK TO IMPROVE

THE REAL MEANING AND LIMITS OF GRADES

Chapter 32: Evaluating and Documenting Teaching Effectiveness

DEFINING AND MEASURING TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

STUDENT EVALUATIONS

PEER, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND SELF-EVALUATIONS

DOCUMENTING YOUR EFFECTIVENESS

COMPREHENSIVE APPROACHES TO FACULTY EVALUATION

COMPLEX BEYOND MEASURE

APPENDIX: Instructional Support and Resources at Your Institution

REFERENCES

INDEX